ill 


li 


THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE 
OF  PRUNING 


CLOSE  VIEW  OF   FRUIT  SPURS   OF  TREE  SHOWN   IN  FIG.    173 
This  shows  the  tendency  of  unheaded  shoots  to  develop  large  numbers  of  fruit 
spurs.     Notice  that  a  spur  has  developed   from   nearly  every  node  on  the  two-vear 
wood,   and   this   in   the   top  of  a  young  tree   of    a    variety    normally   slow   to   come 
into  bearing. 


The  Principles  and  Practice  of 

PRUNING 


Jc  weniger  wir  zu  schneiden  haben  am  Baum,  desto 
gesunder  bleibt  er  und  desto  schoner  entwickeln  sich 
Friichte.  —  Karl  Koopmann. 

[TRANSLATION.— The  less  a  tree  is  cut,  the  sounder 
it  will  be,  and  the  better  its  fruits.] 


By 
M.  G.  KAINS 

Lecturer  on  Horticulture, 
Columbia  University 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

1920 


H  rn  MDDADV 


Copyright,  1917,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


PRINTED  iv  U.  S.  A. 


Co  tfjc  memory 
of 


in  U)i)o$e  toell  ••  manageb  plantation 
II  gaineb  mp  f  irsft  pruning  experience 
anb  biscobf  rrb  mp  lobe  for 
fruit  groining 


If  Trees  Gould  Talk 


Frank  L.  Brace  in  Tree  Talk 

If  trees  could  talk,  the  tales  they'd  tell 

Would  surely  be  worth  listening  to. 
The  trees  that  form  the  shady  dell, 

Where  lovers  their  fond  vows  renew ; 
The  trees  that  guard  the  home,  the  street 

Where  children  play  and  elders  rest; 
What  varied  tales  would  they  repeat 

Of  hopes  deferred  or  hearts  oppressed 

Of  happy  lives  divinely  blest. 

If  trees  could  talk,  how  oft  we'd  hear 
Of  gross  mistreatment,  lack  of  care, 

Borne  patiently  for  many  a  year, 
While  thoughtless  mortals  unaware 

Of  how  trees  suffer,  why  they  fail, 
Put  forth  no  effort  to  repel 

The  foes  that  constantly  assail. 

Sad  tales  like  this  we  know  full  well, 
A  myriad  suffering  trees  would  tell. 

If  trees  could  talk,  methinks  their  words 

Would  sound  a  protest  loud  and  stern 
For  loss  of  their  good  friends,  the  birds, 

And  make  a  plea  for  their  return. 
Trees  need  the  birds  and  so  do  we. 

In  the  incessant  fight  to  stay 
The  foes  that  so  persistently 

On  flowers  and  fruit  and  foliage  prey, 

Our  allies,  vigilant,  are  they. 

Trees  cannot  talk,  and  yet,  to  him 

Who  truly  loves  these  friends  of  man, 

Their  every  leaf  and  flower  and  limb 
Is  vocal.    Since  the  world  began 

The  trees  have  been  our  steadfast  friends, 
And  our  well-being  constantly 

Upon  their  life  and  growth  depends. 
How  faithful  then  our  care  should  be, 
How  fondly  should  we  love  the  tree. 


PREFACE 


FEW  practices  in  the  handling  of  plants,  especially  of 
fruit  trees  and  bushes,  attract  so  much  interest  as 
those  of  pruning.     The  methods  are  so  varied,  the 
results    so    diverse    and    the    apparently    contradictory 
opinions  of  growers  so  tenaciously  held  that  this  subject 
is  always  one  of  the  surest  to  arouse  discussion  and  hold 
attention  at  horticultural  society  meetings  and  wherever 
demonstrations  are  given  by  agricultural  colleges  and 
schools  and  by  farm  bureaus. 

During  the  past  two  decades  the  principles  of  plant 
physiology  have  been  more  satisfactorily  applied  to  plant 
production  and  crop  management  than  ever  before  in  the 
history  of  agriculture.  Especially  during  the  latter  half 
of  this  period  have  experiment  station  and  other  workers 
been  devoting  annually  increasing  attention  and  time  to 
pruning  investigations  in  their  efforts  to  discover  new 
truths  and  to  prove  not  only  disputed  and  undecided 
points,  but  to  test  many  beliefs  and  rules  of  thumb  which 
have  been  accepted  as  true,  but  which  increasing  knowl- 
edge of  plant  physiology  has  led  these  investigators  to 
challenge.  Much  has  been  discovered,  much  verified  and 
much  disproved.  But  the  reports  of  these  investigations 
are  necessarily  so  scattered  that  very  few  fruit  growers 
have  access  to  them,  and  students  of  agricultural  col- 
leges and  schools,  even  if  they  know  how  to  search,  lack 
the  time  to  hunt  through  the  libraries  of  their  respective 
institutions  to  find  this  literature.  Many  bulletins  and 
reports  are  out  of  print,  so  none  can  be  had.  Hence  the 
demand  for  a  book  which  shall  present  the  really  im- 
portant features  of  these  investigations  as  well  as  set 

vii 


Vlll  PREFACE 

forth  the  fundamental  principles  based  upon  the  laws  of 
plant  growth. 

The  writings  on  these  pruning  investigations  have 
been  quoted  freely,  the  original  investigator's  own  words 
being  used  in  preference  to  mine.  This  I  feel  simple 
justice  both  to  investigator  and  reader,  because  in  any 
re-statement  something  is  sure  to  be  lost.  The  reader 
will  herein  find  only  slight  condensations  of  the  investi- 
gators' original  text.  Among  the  writers  so  quoted  arc  : 
Professors  Lewis  of  Oregon,  Biolctti  of  California,  Blake 
of  New  Jersey,  Whitten  and  Chandler  of  Missouri,  Keffer 
of  Tennessee,  Drinkard  of  Virginia,  Howe  and  Gladwin 
of  New  York,  Selby  of  Ohio,  Newman  of  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Collins  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume  I  have  found  the 
Experiment  Station  Record,  published  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  of  immeasurable  help 
in  searching  for  literature  on  pruning  by  means  of  its 
abstracts  and  voluminous  indexes.  From  it  occasional 
brief  passages,  mainly  concerning  foreign  investigations, 
have  been  copied,  with  credit  to  the  original  sources  of 
information  instead  of  to  the  Record  itself. 

My  special  thanks  are  due  to  Professor  W.  G.  Brierley 
of  the  University  of  Minnesota  for  photographs  of  prun- 
ing tools  (Figures  107,  108,  110,  114,  116  and  118)  and 
the  legends  which  accompany  them;  to  Mr.  B.  F.  Wil- 
liamson of  New  York,  who  made  almost  all  of  the  pen 
and  ink  drawings,  either  from  rough  sketches  or  from  the 
original  sources  in  bulletins,  reports,  etc. ;  and  to  Mr. 
E.  T.  Kirk  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College  for  photo- 
graphs of  local  subjects,  mostly  gathered  in  the  college 
orchard  and  on  the  campus.  The  other  photos,  except 
as  specified  under  "Acknowledgments,"  were  "snapped" 
by  my  own  camera,  mainly  at  State  College.  Pa.,  and 
developed  by  Mr.  Kirk, 


PREFACE  IX 

I  have  had  too  long  experience  in  editing  books  and 
articles  to  suppose  that  this  volume  is  physically  perfect. 
I  therefore  request  that  readers  kindly  note  any  least 
error  and  notify  either  the  publishers  or  me,  so  that  cor- 
rection may  be  made  in  future  editions.  In  the  hope, 
however,  that  these  errors  will  be  few  and  that  the  book 
will  meet  the  need  of  those  for  whom  it  has  been  written, 
I  commend  it  to  all  who  may  have  occasion  to  use 
pruning  tools. 

M.  G.  KAINS. 

Port  Washington,  L.  I. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The  following  individuals  and  institutions  have  sup- 
plied illustrations  referred  to  by  the  figure  numbers 
opposite  their  names. 

Prof.  W.  G.  Brierley,  University  of  Minnesota  at  St.  Paul 

107,  108,  110,  114,  116,  118 
California  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley 

257,  258,  265,  282  to  286,  288  to  290 

Colorado  Experiment  Station  at  Fort  Collins 72,  136a 

Connecticut  Experiment  Station  at  Storrs 

25  to  27,  209,  215,  216,  302 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

211  to  213,  183  (redrawn  by  B.  F.  Williamson) 
Prof.  A.  W.  Cowell,  Pennsylvania  State  College  at  State  College, 

Pa.    — 95,  304,  307,  311,  312 

Credit  lost  24 

Farmers'  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture 181,  188,  190,  248,  254  to  256,  259  to  262,  264,  266, 
274,  276  to  281,  287 

N.  R.  Graves  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. 298  to  300 

Idaho  Experiment  Station  at  Moscow 75  to  77,  92,  93 

Indiana  Experiment  Station  at  Lafayette 

61,  73,  132  to  134,  178,  179 

Iowa  Experiment  Station  at  Ames 70 

E.  D.  Kains  of  Wyomissing,  Pa. 64,  65,  96,  310 

Kentucky  Experiment  Station  at  Lexington 269  to  273 

Maryland  Experiment  Station  at  College  Park 22,  102 

A.  F.  Mason  of  State  College,  Pa. 2 

Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  at  Amherst 313 

Missouri  Experiment  Station  at  Columbia 

98,  120,  214,  217  to  225,  294 
New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  at  New  Brunswick 

121,  122,  125,  128  to  131,  195  to  198,  200 

New  York  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva 74,  275 

North  Carolina  Experiment  Station  at  Raleigh 33 

Ohio  Experiment  Station  at  Wooster 4,  315  to  324 

xi 


Xll 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


Oregon  Experiment  Station  at  Corvallis,  Frontispiece,  23,  124, 
145  to  152,  154  to  177,  180,  182,  184  to  187,  189,  191  to  193, 
202,  235  to  237 
Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  at  Kingston__137  to  144,  240,  ~'44 

Tennessee  Experiment  Station  at  Knoxville 234  to  266 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

301,  303,  305,  306,  308,  :;<>'.• 

Vermont  Experiment  Station  at  Burlington 71,  205  to  208 

Washington  Experiment  Station  at  Pullman :.'4< 

West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  at  Morgantown 

153,  238,  239,  242,  243,  245,  246,  250  to  253 

W.  R.  White  of  State  College,  Pa. 96 

B.  F.  Williamson  of  New  York  City 

10,  12,  13,  15,  17,  19,  106,  109,  113,  135.  136a.  263 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  at  Madison 

11,  66,  67,  123,  127,  136,  191,  ;il  i 


CONTENTS 

Page 

CHAPTER  I 
Introduction   ...  ....       1 

CHAPTER  II 
Plant  Physiology  as  Related  to  Pruning  ...       6 

CHAPTER  III 
The  Philosophy  of  Pruning     .          .  .          .34 

CHAPTER  IV 

Buds      . 48 

CHAPTER  V 
Pruning   Principles          ......     81 

CHAPTER  VI 
How  Wounds  Heal 121 

CHAPTER  VII 
Prevention  and  Repair  of  Mechanical  Injuries  .         .  138 

CHAPTER  VIII 
Dressings  for  Wounds     ......  154 

CHAPTER  IX 
Pruning  Nursery  Stock  .          .          .          .          .          .167 

CHAPTER  X 
Pruning  Young  Trees     .          .          .  .         .  186 

CHAPTER  XI 
Pruning  Mature  Trees 241 


XIV  CONTEXTS 

Page 

CHAPTER  XII 
Care  of  Top-Worked  Trees     , 274 

CHAPTER  XIII 
Rush  Fruit  Pruning         .          .          .          .         .         .279 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Grape  Pruning  and  Training  .....  294 

CHAPTER  XV 
Pruning  Ornamental  Trees  and  Shrubs     .          .          .   354 

CHAPTER  XVI 
Dwarf  Tree  Pruning  and  Training  ....  364 

CHAPTER  XVII 
Odd  Methods  of  Pruning  and  Training     .          .          .   371 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
Practical  Tree  Surgery  .  ....  384 

CHAPTER  XIX 
Rejuvenation  of  Neglected  Trees     ....  405 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fig.  Page 

Close  View  of  Fruit  Spurs  of  Tree — Frontispiece 

1  Renovating  an  Old  Neglected  Apple  Tree       .       2 

2  Wrongly  Cut  Limb  with  Decay  Hole     .  .       3 

3  Tree  Too  High-Headed         ....       4 

4  First  Crop  of  Apples  After  Renovation  of  Old 

Trees      .  .  .  .  .  .  .5 

5  Meristematic  Cell  from  Root  Tip  of  Maize       .       6 

6  Chlorenchyma  Cell  Showing  Starch  Grains  and 

Chloroplasts     .           .           .           .           .  7 

7  Root  Hair  Greatly  Magnified         ...  9 

8  Root  Tip  Much  Magnified    ....  9 

9  Rootlet  Seen  in  Cross  Section         .           .           .  10 

10  How  Nursery  Trees  Are  Dug        .  .  .11 

11  Last  Year's  (Black)  and  This  Spring's  (Light) 

Roots;  Also  Buds  of  Spruce       .  .  .12 

12  Epidermal  Cells  and  Stomata  from  a  Leaf       .     15 

13  Three  Sections  of  Oak  Branch  Showing  Vari- 

ous Tissues      .  .  .  .  .  .17 

14  Cross   Section  of  Stem  .  .  .  .19 

15  Fibro-Vascular  Bundle  .  .  .  .21 

16  Contrasting  Growths  of  Mazzard  Cherry  .     22 

17  Diagram  of  Cut  Edge  of  Leaf        .  .  .23 

18  Comparison  of  Growth  .  .  .  .24 

19  Cross  Section  of  a  Leaf         .  .  .  .25 

20  Side  View  of  an  Apple  Seedling     .  .  •  .27 

21  Seedling  Apple  Seen  from  Above    .  .  .28 

22  "Leggy"  Peach  Trees  .  .  .  .32 

23  Result  of  Close  Planting  and  Poor  Pruning  .     34 

24  How  Not  to  Manage  Trees    .  .  .  .35 

25  White  Pine  Plantation,  Before  Thinning  .     37 

26  White  Pine  Plantation  After  Thinning    .  .     38 


XVI  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  Page 

27  Seedling  Chestnut  103  Years  Old   .  .  .     39 

28  How  Branches  Are  Buried    .  .  .  .42 

29  Apple  Twigs  of  Various  Ages        .  .  .45 

30  Dehorning  with  a  Vengeance         .  .  .48 

31  New  Growth  on  "Dehorned"  Peach  Tree  .     49 

32  Nothing  Wrong  with  the  Roots      .  .  .51 

33  Fruiting  Habit  of  Fig  ....     53 

34  Apple  Branch  Estimated  20  Years  Old    .  .     55 

35  Fruiting  Spurs  of  Apple         .  .  .  .56 

36  Blooming  Twig  of  Apple      .  .  .  .57 

37  Peach  Spur r>8 

38  Annual  Growth  of  Peach      ....     59 

39  European1  Plum 60 

40  Japanese   Plum  .           .           .           .           .61 

41  Blossom  Buds  of  Sour  Cherry         .          ,.  .62 

42  Sweet  Cherry  Twig  in  Two  Sections       .  .     63 

43  Sweet  Cherry 64 

44  Sour  Cherry        .  .  .  .  .  .65 

45  Four- Year  Sweet  Cherry  Twig      .  .           .65 

46  Fruit  and  Leaf  Buds  of'  Peach        .  .  .66 

47  Peach  Twigs  That  Have  Borne  Fruit      .  .     66 

48  Japanese  Plum    .  .  .  .  .  .67 

49  Currant  Branches  of  Various  Ages          .  .     67 

50  Gooseberry  Branches,  Young  and  Old      .  .     68 

51  Grape  Cane  One  Year  Old    .  .  .  .69 

52  Red  Currant  Bloom  Cluster  .  .  .  .71 

53  Gooseberry           ....  .71 

54  Fruiting  Branch  of  Blackberry       .  .  .73 

55  Red  Raspberry  Fruiting  Branch     .           .  .     75 

56  Black  Raspberry  Fruiting  Laterals  and  Cane    .     77 

57  Characteristic  Grape  Shoot  of  a  Labrusca  Va- 

riety       .  .  .  .  .  •  .78 

58  How  Quince  Bears  Bloom      .           .           .  .79 

59  Quince  Method  of  Fruiting  . 

60  "Der  End  of  Der  Limit"  in  Pruning        .  .     82 

61  The  Tree  Butcher's  Method          .          .  .84 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XV11 

Fig.  Page 

62  Upright  Limb  Replaces  Horizontal  One  .     84 

63  Leader  Renewed  in  Broken  Tree    .  .  .86 

64  One  of  the  Worst  Foes  of  Trees  Is  the  "Line 

Man" 88 

65  Tree's  Attempt  to  Offset  Butchering       .  .     88 

66  Yearling  Growth  Cut  Back    .  .  .  .90 

67  How  Crooked  Branches  Are  Made  .  .91 

68  One  Way  Horizontal  Branches  Are  Killed        .     93 

69  Poorly  "Pruned"  Pear  .  .  .  .     94 

70  Twenty-Year-Old  Catalpa  Plantation      .  .     96 

71  Typical  Pasture-Grown  White  Pine         .  .     98 

72  Branches  of  Low-Headed  Trees  Tend  to  As- 

cend at  Acute  Angles         ....  100 

73  Badly  Developed  Tree  Head  .  .  .104 

74  Effects  of  Ringing  Young  Trees      .  .  .108 

75  Shoot  Growth  from  Stubs  Left  in  May    .  .  Ill 

76  Shoot  Growth  from  Winter-Pruned  Stubs          .  112 

77  Effects  of  August   Pruning  .  .     >    .  .  113 

78  How  Bark  Becomes  Rough  by   Splitting  and       '. 

Healing 121 

79  Cross   Sections   of  White   Pine    (2x4)    Scant- 

lings Showing  Branches  Buried  by  Tissue    .  122 

80  Cross  Section  of  Pine  Scantling     .  .  .123 

81  Dead  Limbs  Being  Buried    ....  123 

82  History  of  a  Stub  in  Six  Chapters  .  .  124 

83  Hoping  Still        .  .  ,  .  .  .  125 

84  More  Than  Three-Fourths  of  the  Trunk  Lost 

by  Decay  and  Breakage     ....  125 

85  Flicker's  Nest      .  .  ,  .  126 

86  Cannon  Ball  in"  Oak  Tree  •  .  .  .      .     .  127 

87  Heart    Decaying 128 

88  Cuts  Made  Heading-In  Twigs       .  .  .129 

89  Wrong  Way  to  Cut  Off  Big  Limbs        .  .  130 

90  Proper  Way  to  Start  Cutting  Off  Large  Limb      131 

91  Second    Cut    Properly    Made    in    Sawing    Off 

Large    Limbs  .          .          .          .          .  132 


XV111  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

F»K-  Page 

92  Wrong  Way  to  Make  a  Cut  in  Removing  a 

Large  Limb     ......  133 

93  Right  Way  to  Make  Pruning  Cut    .  .  .  134 

94  Sad  Effects  of  Sleet  Storm  .  .  .135 

95  Label  Wire  Makes  Girdled  Limb  Bloom  Pre- 

maturely ......  136 

96  A  Wire  Girdled  This  Cherry  Tree  .  .  .138 

97  Bench  Supported  by  Living  Tree    .  .  .  139 

98  How  to  Handle  Young  Forked  Tree       .  .  140 

99  History  of  a  Crotch  Split      .  .  .  .141 

100  Triple   Y-Crotch 142 

101  Saving  a  Y-Crotch 142 

102  Splitting  of  Peach  Tree  Where  the  Top  Was 

Improperly  Formed  with  a  Y-Crotch  .  143 

103  One  Wrong' Way  to  Mend  Y-Crotch      .  .  144 

104  Living  Wood  Brace  Between  Trunk  and  Limb 

of  Norway  Maple     .....  145 

105  Well-Branched  Low-Headed  Peach         .  .  146 

106  Miscellaneous  Pruning  Tools         .  .  .  147 

107  Pole  Shears  for  Outside  Branch  Pruning         .  148 

108  Pole  Shear  Pruners,  Sliding  Handle  Type        .  149 

109  Pruning  Shears  of  Various  Styles  .  .   15o 

110  Good,  Bad  and  Indifferent  Hand  Shears  .  .  151 

111  Common  Pruning  Saws         .  .  .  .  152 

112  Pruning  Knives  of  Various  Styles  .  .  .  153 

113  Collection  of  Pruning  Knives         .  .  .   154 

114  Principal   Styles  of  Double-Handled   Lopping 

Shears  ......   155 

115  Good,  Bad  and  Indifferent  Pruning  Saws         .156 

116  Types  of  Hand  Saws  for  Tree  Pruning    .  .   1 57 

117  Students'  Combination   Saws          .  .  .  15S 

118  Pole  Saws  Are   All    Awkward   in   Use,   Make 

Ragged  Cuts  and  Are  Undesirable  .  .   159 

119  Where  New  Roots  Start       .  .  .  .168 

120  Various  Grades  of  Peach  Trees     .  .  .  169 

121  Yearling  Peach   with  Central   Leader  .  .  170 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XIX 

Fig.  Page 

122  After  Pruning  Tree  in  Fig.  121       .  .  .  170 

123  How  Top  of  Newly  Set  Tree  May  Be  Pruned  .  171 

124  Effect  of  Wind  on  Unstaked  Trees        .  .  .172 

125  Peach  of  Poor  Form    .  ...  .  173 

126  After  Pruning 173 

127  Young   Trees    Properly    Heeled    in   for   Tem- 

porary Storage  .....  174 

128  Yearling  Peach  Before  Pruning      .  .  .  175 

129  Same  Tree  as  in  Fig.  128  After  Being  Pruned  175 

130  Undesirable    Form        .  .  .  .  .176 

131  Desirable    Form    of    Growth    Made    by    Tree 

Headed  About  2  Feet  When  Set          .  .  176 

132  Developing  Tops  on  Second-Class  Trees  .  .  177 

133  Well-Branched   Nursery  Tree         .  .  .  178 

134  Where  to  Cut     .  .'  .  .  .  179 

135  How  to  Plant  a  Tree    .  .       •    .  .  .179 

136  Air  Space  Among  Roots  of  Badly  Planted  Tree  180 

137  Tree  Set  Obliquely  Against  Wind  .  .  180 

138  Tree   Grown  from  Untrimmed  Nursery  Stock  181 
138a  Tree  from  "Stringfellowed"   Roots          .  .181 

139  Tree  Grown  from  Stub-Pruned  Roots     .  .182 

140  Tree  Grown  from  Untrimmed  Nursery  Plant     .  182 

141  Head  on  Tree  Where  Roots  Were  Cut  Back     .  183 

142  At  Planting  Time  the  Branches  Were  Cut  Back  183 

143  Tree  Grown  from  a  "Whip"  with  the  Leader 

Left 184 

144  Head  Formed  by  "Whip"  with  Leader  Cut  Back  184 

145  Badly  Formed  'Tree  Head     ....  186 

146  Main  Branches  Barren  Because  of  Neglect        .  187 

147  Old  Bartlett  Fruit  Spurs  Which  Bloom  Yearly 

but  Seldom  Bear  Fruit      .  .  .  .188 

148  Young  Yellow  Newtown  Tree  Before  August 

Pruning .189 

1 49  After  August  Pruning  Young  Yellow  Newtown  189 

150  Vigorous   Shoot   Produced   from   Old   Bartlett 

Pear  Spur 190 


XX  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

I'ig.  page 

151  Heavy  Heading  Back  Develops  Wood    .  .191 

152  Typical  Leader  Tree    .....  192 

153  Three  Decks  of  Frame  Limbs        .  .  .192 

154  Modified   Leader  .....  1!W 

155  Modified    Leader           .           .  .           .           .19:] 

156  Good  Modified   Leader  .  .  .  .193 

157  Modified  Leader 194 

158  Example  of  Unequal  Growth          .  .  .  1!H 

159  Good    Vegetative    Response    from     Thinning 

Bartlett  Pear  Spurs  .  .  .  .195 

160  Five- Year-Old  Wagener  Apple  Tree       .  .  19(i 

161  Heading  Back  Makes  Growth         .           .  .197 

162  Good  Effect  of  July  Pruning          .           .  .  198 

163  Good    Example    of    Proper    Balance    Between 

Branches  .  .  ..          .  .  .199 

164  Balanced  and  Unbalanced  Pruning          .  .  200 

165  Reinvigorated  Top  of  Old  Pear  Tree       .  .  201 

166  Moderate  Pruning  Stimulated  Shoot  Formation  202 

167  Pear  Spurs  Which  Have  Borne  Well   in   Pre- 

vious Years     ......  203 

168  Too  Much  Shading  by  Upper  Branches  Killed 

This  Twig 204 

169  Abundance  of  Fruit  Spurs  in  the  Light    .  .  205 

170  Partial  Dehorning  Failed       ....  20l> 

171  Heavy  Pruning  Makes  for  Wood    .  .  .  207 

172  Vigorous  Growths  Follow  Thinning        .  .  208 

173  Fruit  Spurs  Due  to  Good  Pruning  .           .  209 

174  Typical  Five- Year  Winter  Nelis  Pear    .  .  210 

175  Fruit  Spurs  Form  on  Last  Year's  Shoots  .  211 

176  Five-Year  Newtown  Pruned  .          .          .212 

177  Five-Year  Apple  Pruned  Previous  Summer      .  213 

178  Well-Formed  Apple  Tree  Head     .  .214 

179  Splendid  Distribution   of  Frame  Branches   on 

Four- Year  Apple  Tree       .          .          .          .215 

180  Far  Too  Many  Fruit  Spurs    .  .  .  .216 

181  Plan  of  Tree  at  Planting  Time      .  .  .217 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XXI 

Fig.  Page 

182  Pruned   Pear       .  ....  218 

183  Fire-Blight  Handling  Kit      .  .  .  .  219 

184  Poor  Type   Cherry 220 

185  Three- Year  Lambert  Cherry  Pefore  Early  July 

Pruning  ......  221 

186  Three-Year-Old    Lambert    Cherry    Tree    After 

Pruning  in  Early  July       ....  221 

187  Old  Prune  Tree  After  Removal  of  Dead  Wood 

and  Severe  Thinning  of  the  Living  Spurs      .  222 

188  Five-Branched  Tree  at  end  of  First  Season       .  223 

189  Neglect   Following  Dehorning        .  .  .  224 

190  Plan  of  Tree  Top  After  One  Season's  Growth 

in   Orchard 225 

191  English   Walnut 225 

192  Splendid    Type    of     Low-Headed,     Spreading 

English   Walnut        .....  226 

193  Portable  Brush  Incinerator  ....  227 

194  Well  Pruned  and  Open  Headed     .  .  .228 

195  Good  Yearling  Peach  .  .  .  .229 

196  Peach  Trunk,  1 229 

197  Peach  Trunk,  2 230 

198  One- Year  Peach  from  Nursery       .  .  .231 

199  Good  Tree  Protector 231 

200  One-Year  Peach  from  Nursery       .  .  .  232 

201  Inviting  Disaster          ....  .  241 

202  Unpardonable  "Pruning"       .  .  .  .242 

203  Cross  Section  of  Trunk  Shown  in  Fig.  204        .  243 

204  How  Trees  Bury  Stubs         .  .  .  .244 

205  Winter  Injured  Rhode  Island  Greening  Apple 

Tree  Before  Pruning  in  Early  June      .  .  245 

206  Pruned  Apple      .           .           .  .           .  24(> 

207  August 246 

208  September  Showing 246 

209  Healthy  Pear  Bark  Showing  Lenticels    .  .  247 

210  Fungi  Attack  Injured  Bark    .  .  .  .248 

211  Pear  Stub  Admits  Blight     .          ,          ,          .248 


XX 11  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  Page 

212  Blight  Spread  from  Pruning  Wound       .  .  249 

213  Cankered  Limb  Showing  Blight  Exudations     .  250 

214  Frost-Killed  Peach  Wood  Variously  Handled    .  2r>2 

215  Winter  Injury  of  Peach         .  .           .  253 

216  Winter  Injuries  ......  254 

217  Poor  Growth  of  Peach  Tree  Not  Pruned  After 

Severe  Winter  Injury        ....  255 

218  Peach  Trees  Cut  Back  with  Varying  Degrees 

of  Severity       ......  256 

219  Tree    Headed    Back    More   Severely    Than    It 

Should  Be  and  Too  Many  Branches  Left       .  257 

220  Properly  Cut  Back  Peach  '  .  .  .  .258 

221  Unsatisfactory  Growth   of  Peach  Not   Pruned 

Back  Severely  Enough  After  Winter  Injury  .  259 

222  Peach  in  Foreground  Shows  Good  Growth      .  260 

223  One  Season's  Growth  of  Eight-Year  Peach      .  261 

224  Old  Mixon  Free  Peach  with  Spreading  Head    .  262 

225  Peach  Tree  with  Very  Dense  New  Growth      .  263 

226  Greensboro  Five  Years   Old  .  .  .264 

227  Greensboro  Peach,  F,ive  Years  Old          .  .  265 

228  Greensboro,    Five    Years    Old,    Not    Summer 

Pruned 266 

229  Greensboro,  Five  Years  Old,  Pruned  in  August  267 

230  Greensboro,  Five  Years  Old,  Pruned  in  July      .  268 

231  Five- Year  Belle  of  Georgia  Pruned  in   Early 

June 269 

232  Five- Year    Belle    of    Georgia    Not    Summer- 

Pruned  270 

233  Greensboro  Tree,  Seven  Years  Old,  Not  Sum- 

mer Pruned 271 

234  Fourteen-Year  Greensboro  Summer-Pruned     .  272 

235  New  Growth  on  Top- Worked  Apple        .  .  275 

236  One  Season's  Growth  on  Top- Worked  Apple    .  276 

237  New  Growth  at  End  of  Second  Season  on  Top- 

Worked  Apple  Tree  .  .  .  .277 

238  Red  Raspberry  Canes  Before  Pruning    .  .  280 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XX111 

Fig.  Page 

239  Red  Raspberry  Canes  After  Pruning      .  .  281 

240  Bramble  Canes  in  Position  for  Covering  with 

Earth  for  the  Winter         .  .  .  .282 

241  Red  Raspberry  Cane  Improperly  Pruned          .  283 

242  Black  Raspberry  Before  Pruning    .  .  .284 

243  Black  Raspberry  After  Pruning     .  .  .285 

244  Loganberry   Plants  with  Fruiting  Canes  Sup- 

ported on  Wire  Trellis       .           .  .  .286 

245  Blackberry  Canes  Before  Pruning  .  .  287 

246  Blackberry  Canes  After  Pruning    .  .  .288 

247  Styles  of  Bramble  Cane  Supports    .  .  .289 

248  Popular  Styles  of  Blackberry  Training  .  .  290 

249  Blackberry  Cane  and  Main  Branch  .  .  291 

250  Unpruned  Currant  Planted  One  Year  .  .  292 

251  One- Year   Planted    Currant,   Pruned   Same  as 

Fig.  250 292 

252  Gooseberry  Before  Pruning  .  .  .293 

253  Gooseberry  After  Pruning    ....  294 

254  Vines  Growing  in  Vineyard  the  First  Year      .  295 

255  Grapevine  Showing  Method  of  Pruning  Roots 

Ready    for   Planting           .           .           .  .296 

256  Rotundifolia   (Muscadine)     .           .           .  .297 

257  Unit  of  Short  Pruning            .           .           .  .298 

258  Unit  of  Long  Pruning  of  Grapevine        .  .  299 

259  Vines   Headed   Back  for  Various   Systems  of 

Pruning 300 

260  Pruned  and  Unpruned  Vine  at  Various  Stages 

of  the  Renewal  System      .  .          .          .301 

261  Umbrella  Trellis  ....          .  302 

262  Fan  System,  Vine  at  Various  Ages        .  .  303 

263  Wire  Hook  for  Holding  Vine  to  Trellis    .  .  304 

264  Post  and  Stake  Methods  of  Grape  Training      .  305 

265  Head     Pruning:       Fan-Shaped     Head,     Fruit 

Canes  Tied  to  Horizontal  Trellis         .          .  306 

266  Diagram  of  Ordinary  Trellis  .  ,  .307 


XXIV  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

1-  ig.  Page 

267  Recurving   the   Canes   as   in   the    Fan    System 

Usually  Tends  to  Promote  Fruitfulness         .  3','8 

268  Unpruned  Vine  Trained  According  to  the  Fan 

System 311 

269  The  Kniffin  System.  Before  Pruning  Grapevine  314 

270  The    Kniffin    System    of    Training    the    Vine 

Shown  in  Fig.  271 315 

271  End  of  Munson  Row    .  .  .  .  .317 

272  Munson  System  of  Training, Vine  Unpruned     .  31  cS 

273  Munson  System  of  Grape  Training          .  .  31!) 

274  Pruned     and     Unpruned     Vine,     "Umbrella" 

Kniffin    System          .  .  .  .  .321 

275  Various  Methods  of  Vine  Pruning  Popular  in 

New  York 322 

276  Vine  in  Its  Fourth  Year       ....  32.1 

277  Hudson  Horizontal  System  .           .           .  I'M 

278  Caywood  System  of  Grape  Training       .  .  327 

279  Parrales  System  of  Training  Vines  .  .  328 

280  Muscadine  (Rotundifolia)   Grapevine       .  .  32!) 

281  Cross-Wire  System  Showing  Pruned  Vine       .  330 

282  Sultanina  Vine  Showing  Effect  of  Tying  Fruit 

Canes  in  Vertical  Position  .  .  .  333 

283  Rooted   Vine    Pruned  .  .  33ti 

284  Treatment  of  an  Average  Vine  During  Second 

Season    .......  338 

285  Grape   Spur 340 

286  Three-Year-Old  Vines  After  Pruning     . 

287  Grapevines  of  Various  Ages  .  .  .  343 

288  Forms  of  Grapevine  Head  Training  .  345 

289  Treatment  of  Average  Vine  in  Third  Season  or 

Vigorous  One  in  Second    ....  347 

290  Forms  of  Head  Pruning  of  Grapes  .  349 

291  Horse  Chestnut  Co-Terminal  Bloom  Bud  Ex- 

panding ....  .  356 

292  Shade  Tree  Headed  Too  Low      .          .          .357 

293  Huge  Wound  Well  Made     .          ,          .          .358 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  XXV 

Fig.  Page 

294  How  to  Force  Peach  Buds  to  Determine  Their 

Condition          ......  359 

295  Golden   Bell— Forsythia         .  .  .  .360 

296  Co-Terminal     Method     of     Bloom     Bearing— 

Weigelia 361 

297  Red  Bud 362 

298  Dwarf    Fruit    Trees    Artistically    Handled    in 

Amateur  Garden       .....  372 

299  Dwarf  Pear  Trees  Trained  in  Simple  Way          .  374 

300  Peach  and  Pear  Trees  Trained  to  Wire  Trellis  376 

301  Treated  Injuries  Normally  Heal     .           .  .  382 

302  Mutilated  to  Lay  a  Curb       .           .           .  .383 

303  Cement  Fillings  and  Guy  Chain  Attachment    .  385 

304  Good  Healing  Over  Properly  Placed  Bolt  Head  387 

305  Long    Cavities    Excavated    Through    Several 

Openings          ......  388 

306  Excavated,  Bolted  and  Cemented  Cavities         .  390 

307  How  Not  to  Cover  a  Cavity  with  Concrete       .  392 

308  Cement  Filling  Types  and  Successive  Steps     .  393 

309  Proper  Method  of  Fastening  Guv  Chains  and 

Bolts       .          .          .          .,-.;'.          .395 

310  Isn't  This  Ghastly? 397 

311  Roping  a  Tree  Preparatory  to  Bolting      .  .  398 

312  Students  at  Work  in  Tree  Surgery          .  .  399 

313  Methods  of  Fastening  Wires  to  Trees       .  .  404 

314  Neglected  Tree  Hard  to  Spray  and  Harvest      .  405 

315  Old  Peach  Tree  Before  Rejuvenation      .  .  406 

316  Old  Peach  After  Cutting  Back  Severely    .  .  407 

317  Old  Peach  Tree  Rejuvenated           .           .  .407 

318  Orchard  Before  Renewal  or  Renovation  .  .  408 

319  Caught  Red  Handed !    .           .           .           .  .  409 

320  Trees  After  Cutting 410 

321  First  Season's  Growth  After  Pruning     .  .  411 

322  Isolated  Apple  Tree  Before  Pruning       .  .  412 

323  Isolated  Apple  Tree  After  Being  Pruned  .  413 

324  Same  Tree  as  in  Fig.  323  the  Summer  After  f  414 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

1.  Pruning  defined. — Pruning  is  the  horticultural 
process  of  cutting  off  excess  or  undesirable  living, 
dying  or  dead  branches,  twigs,  roots  or  other  plant  parts, 
especially  of  fruit  trees,  vines  and  shrubs,  to  benefit  the 
parts  that  remain.  It  naturally  divides  into  three  classes, 
dependent  upon  the  aim  of  the  pruner ;  namely  :  1,  prun- 
ing for  profit,  as  in  the  case  of  fruit  trees  and  bushes,  the 
object  being  to  secure  finer  or  more  specimens  ;  2,  pruning 
for  ornament,  in  which  case  the  form  of  the  specimen  is 
altered  for  a  real  or  a  fancied  improvement ;  3,  pruning  to 
save  the  life  of  the  specimen — repair  pruning  or  tree 
surgery,  as  it  is  today  popularly  called.  In  the  present 
volume  the  main  object  is  pruning  for  profit,  but  the 
principles  and  the  practice  underlying  the  other  two 
classes  are  discussed,  so  the  reader  may  have  a  good  gen- 
eral or  working  knowledge  of  each. 

The  practice,  which  is  as  old  as  human  history,  is  re- 
ferred to  specifically  in  Leviticus  (xxv,  3,  4),  in  which 
the  children  of  Israel  are  told  to  prune  their  vineyards  and 
gather  the  fruit  during  six  years,  but  in  the  seventh  year 
to  let  the  vines  go  unpruned.  In  five  other  passages  in 
the  old  Testament  figurative  reference  is  also  made  to 
pruning  and  "pruning  hooks."  In  spite  of  the  ancient 
origin  of  the  practices  and  the  efforts  of  many  investi- 
gators during  the  intervening  centuries,  we  have  by  no 
means  reached  the  limit  of  knowledge,  but  can  claim  to 
have  discovered  and  demonstrated  only  a  few  important 
principles  and  useful  practices.  These  are,  however, 
understood  by  comparatively  few  of  the  people  who  grow 
plants,  and  even  by  many  of  the  self-called  pruning  ex- 

l 


2  ccj  ,  RRHJ;CIP(LEo    AND   PRACTICE    OF   PRUNING 

pcrts,  as  evidenced  by  the  ill  effects  observed  in  countless 
fruit  and  shade  trees  and  illustrated  by  many  of  the  half- 
tones shown  in  this  volume. 


FIG.  1— RENOVATING  AN  OLD,  NEGLECTED  APPLE  TREE 

Notice    the    upright   growths    which   started    as    water   sprouts,    but    which    have    de- 
veloped into  fruiting  branches  with  many  short  and  stubby  fruit  spurs. 

Pruning  demands  knowledge  of  plant  physiology.  Un- 
less the  pruner  has  at  least  a  working  knowledge  of  how 
plants  grow  he  will  be  unable  to  prune  intelligently  to 
secure  desired  results.  On  the  contrary,  he  may,  and 
probably  will,  do  far  more  immediate  or  ultimate  harm 
than  good.  Simply  to  top  off  limbs  with  an  ax  (Fig.  61) 
or  improperly  to  remove  others  with  a  saw  (Fig.  201)  is 
not  pruning,  but  usually  a  species  of  tree  butchery  or 
vivisection ;  for  the  tree  is  almost  sure  to  suffer  and 
sooner  or  later  die  from  the  effects.  Again,  without  hav- 
ing a  definite,  desired  end  and  intelligently  working  within 
the  scope  of  the  underlying  physiological  principles,  the 
specimen  treated  may  develop  nothing  but  disease,  death, 


INTRODUCTION 


decay  and  disappointment.  Therefore,  a  sketch  of  plant 
physiology  as  it  bears  upon  pruning  is  given  so  the  reader 
may  better  understand  the  reasons  for  the  pruning  prin- 
ciples and  practices  which  follow  in  subsequent  chapters. 

2.  Pruning  systems  and  ideals. — With  every  kind  of 
fruit,  even  the  strawberry,  there  are  various  systems  and 
ideals  of  pruning  and  training.  These,  so  far  as  the 
woody  fruit  plants  are 
concerned,  differ 
mainly  in  the  form 
which  it  is  designed  to 
give  the  plant  and  in 
the  management  of  the 
annual  growths.  Some 
differences  are  due  to 
variations  among  the 
varieties  or  species, 
others  to  the  aims 
sought,  still  others  to 
the  environmental  con- 
ditions or  the  fashion 
of  the  locality,  and 
many  are  merely  a 
matter  of  the  grower's 
whim  or  caprice 
(Chapter  XVII).  Un- 
questionably the  best 
system  is  that  which  is 
most  nearly  and  readily 
adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions in  the  individual 
plantation.  Whatever  the  system,  unless  it  considers 
the  nature  of  the  plant  to  be  pruned,  it  is  faulty,  to  say 
the  least. 

In  no  branch  of  horticultural  work  is  it  more  important 
for  the  operator  to  have  a  clear  mental  picture  or  ideal 


FIG.   2— WRONGLY  CUT  LIMB  WITH 
DECAY    HOLE 

The  dog  has  chased  a  squirrel  up  in  the  tree 
and  has  jumped  up  to  his  present  position. 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


for  which  to  strive  as  in  pruning.  Fruit  plants  are  so 
open  to  accidents  of  cultivation,  storm,  disease  and  insect 
attack  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  secure,  much  less 
maintain,  an  absolutely  ideal  specimen,  yet  the  ideal  fruit 
plant,  each  for  its  variety  or  species,  must  be  held  tena- 
ciously in  the  pruner's  mind,  or 
his  mechanical  skill  will  count 
for  naught,  and  the  plants  he 
prunes  will  necessarily  be  un- 
even in  appearance,  develop- 
ment, prolificacy  or  some  other 
important  point  or  points. 
With  a  clear  ideal  constantly 
held  while  at  work  he  may 
constantly  approach  even  ap- 
proximate realization  of  his  de- 
sires, and  will  be  able  to 
counteract  undesirable  ten- 
dencies and  to  direct  the  ener- 
gies of  the  plant  in  the  right 
direction.  With  no  plants  is 
this  more  important  than  with 
young  ones.  This  fact  is  well 
illustrated  by  many  popular 
proverbs ;  for  instance,  "As 
the  twig  is  bent,  so  the  tree  in- 
clines." 

3.  Defective  pruning  may  result  in  one  or  more  of  four 
general  classes  of  undesirable  ways:  1.  The  average 
annual  crop  may  be. small  because  of  insufficient  fruit 
buds,  delayed  bearing,  irregularity  of  development,  or 
imperfect  utilization  of  vigor.  2.  The  quality  of  the  fruit 
may  be  inferior  because  of  over-bearing,  especially  of 
weak  plants,  irregular  distribution  of  the  fruit,  and  con- 
sequently more  or  less  irregular  ripening  and  injurious 
contact  of  the  fruits  with  each  other,  with  twigs,  branches 


FIG.    3— TREE    TOO    HIGH- 
HEADED 

.  This  man  is  5  feet  10  inches 
tall.  He  is  reaching  over  7  feet. 
Note  also  that  branches  start 
mainly  from  one  point — unde- 
sirable. 


INTRODUCTION 


of  the  plants  bearing  them,  with  the  soil  or  other  objects. 
3.  Shortened  life  of  the  plants  because  of  pruning  and 
other  wounds,  growth  of  water  sprouts  and  suckers,  or 
to  occasional  or  periodical  over-bearing.  4.  Excessive 
cost  of  plantation  maintenance — tillage  practices,  prun- 
ing and  thinning,  pest  control  or  harvesting  and  grading. 


FIG.  4— FIRST  CROP  OF  APPLES  AFTER  RENOVATION  OF  OLD  TREES 


CHAPTER  IT 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO 
PRUNING 

4.  Plant  cells  and  their  functions. — Knowledge  of  the 
"living-  machinery"  upon  which  fruit  and  ornamental 
plant  growers  depend  for  profit  or  beauty  depends  pri- 
marily upon  knowledge  of  the  minute  structure  and  the 
functions  of  plant  cells.  It  is  not  necessary  in  the  present 
discussion,  however,  to  go  into  the 
matter  as  deeply  as  does  the  plant 
physiologist,  even  though  in  prac- 
tically all  physiological  processes 
plant  cells  form  "the  important  sub- 
stratum of  all  vital  activity." 

5.  Cell. — "One  of  the  structural 
elements  of  living  bodies,  by  which 
the  multiplication  of  growth  is 
affected.  In  plants  the  cell  usually 
appears  as  a  closed  sac  surrounded 
by  a  firm  wall  of  cellulose  and  con- 
taining the  essential  element,  proto- 
plasm, and  usually  a  nucleus,  the  active  agent  in  cell- 
division"  (Crozier). 

6.  Protoplasm. — "The  viscid,  contractile,   semi-liquid, 
more  or  less  granular  substance  that  forms  the  principal 
portion  of  an  animal  or  vegetable  cell"  (Standard  Dic- 
tionary).   "The  physical  basis  of  life"  (Huxley). 

7.  The  water  supply  has  much  to  do  with  the  activities 
of  protoplasm  and  cells  and  the  organisms  wrhich  these 
compose.     Unquestionably   it   more    definitely   sets   the 
bounds  of  plant  growth  as  to  habitats,  localities  and  re- 
gions than  does  any  other  environmental,  physical  factor; 
for,  unless  the  plant  can  secure  a  sufficient  and  practically 

6 


FIG.  5 

MERISTEMATIC      CELL 

FROM  ROOT  TIP  OF 

MAIZE 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING 


constant  supply  of  water  during  its  growing  season,  the 
soil,  however  rich  in  plant  food,  might  as  well  be  sterile. 
Succulent  plants  and  plant  tissues  in  active  growth  con- 
tain relatively  little  fiber,  mineral  and  other  solid  material, 
but  75  per  cent  or  more  of  water. 
Thick-walled,  protective  and  woody 
tissues  contain  relatively  less,  as 
may  also  the  succulent  parts  during 
periods  of  drouths. 

8.  Dual  function  of  water. — Water 
acts  in  the  double  capacity  of  (1)  a 
plant  food  solvent  and  transporting 
agent,  and  (2)  a  crude  plant  food 
itself,  as  in  the  manufacture  of 
starches,  sugars,  cellulose,  etc.  Dur- 
ing the  growing  period,  therefore, 
ordinary  plants  must  be  in  constant 
touch  with  water  in  greater  or  lesser 
supply.  Their  forms,  functions  and 
development  are  also  affected  by  the 
volume,  the  distribution  and  the  min- 
eral content  of  the  available  water. 

Water  maintains  rigidity  in  succulent  plants  and  in 
those  growing  parts  whose  cells  have  not  become  firm 
enough  to  maintain  their  normal  form  when  the  supply 
of  water  becomes  reduced.  This  function  produces  what 
is  termed  hydrostatic  rigidity,  since  it  enables  succulent 
plants  to  support  considerable  weights  of  branches  and 
other  plant  parts.  Should  the  water  supply  become  re- 
duced, such  plants  would  droop  or  wilt  more  or  less  seri- 
ously. Hence,  ample  water  is  a  prime  requisite  of  suc- 
cessful development.  The  supply  may  be  reduced  by 
other  means  than  simply  lack  of  water  in  the  soil. 

"Booth  reports  an  instance  in  which  peaches  on  Marianna  plum 
stocks  grew  fairly' well  for  two  years,  though  from  the  start  the 
peaches  grew  more  rapidly  than  the  plums,  so  the  peach  trunks  were 
at  two  years  twice  as  large  at  the  union  as  below.  During  the 
second  season  the  weather  was  very  hot  and  dry,  and  the  peach  trees, 


FIG.  6 

CHLORENCHYMA      CELL 
SHOWING     STARCH 

GRAINS  AND 
CHLOROPLASTS 


8  I'klMII'LKS    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 

after  wilting  for  several  days,  but  reviving  during  the  night,  finally 
dried  out  and  died,  evidently  because  sufficient  moisture  was  n»t 
furnished  by  the  slow-growing  Marianna  roots  to  meet  the  demand 
from  the  peach  leaves  during  a  period  of  excessive  transpiration."  * 

9.  Water  is  absorbed  by  the  root  system  of  the  great 
majority  of  higher  plants,  especially  those  used  in  agri-' 
culture  and  horticulture.    This  system  is  of  various  forms, 
textures  and  distributions  in  the  soil,  but  these  differences 
are  not  necessarily  linked  with  noticeable  differences  in 
the  quantities  of  available  water.     Root  systems  may  be 
divided  into  two  general  classes,  namely:     (1)  The  tap- 
root style,  which  penetrates  the  soil  more  or  less  vertically 
downward    (parsnip,    hickory),    with    branch    roots    de- 
veloped at  irregular  intervals;  (2)  the  fibrous-root  style, 
which  reveals  little,  if  any,  main  root  axis,  but  has  many 
more  or  less  uniformly  sized  small  roots  starting  from 
near  the  base  of  the  stem  (wheat,  currant). 

10.  Root  hairs  and  their  function. — Roots  and  rootlets, 
no  matter  how  minutely  they  divide,  are  both  the  hold- 
fast organs  whereby  plants  maintain  their  positions  in  the 
soil,  and  the  pipe  lines  whereby  the  upper  parts  of  plants 
are  supplied  with  water  taken  from  the  soil.     Neverthe- 
less they  are  of  secondary  importance  to  the  root  hairs 
with  respect  to  the  water  supply.     The  root  hairs  are 
single  cells  which  push  out  from  the  epidermis  of  rootlets, 
not  at  the  immediate  and  elongating  tip,  but  just  in  the 
rear  of  this  part,  an  area  that  has  ceased  to  extend,  but 
has  not  developed  thick  or  hard-walled  epidermal  cells. 
Their  function  is  to  secure  water  and  crude  plant  food— 
mainly  of  a  mineral  nature — from  the  soil.    Always  they 
occupy  positions  within  a  few  inches  of  the  extreme  tips 
of  the  rootlets.    As  the  tips  push  forward  new  root  hairs 
are  formed  in  front  of  the  older  ones  and  the  oldest  dis- 
appear, to  be  replaced  by  thicker-walled  tissues  incapable 
of  absorbing  either  water  or  mineral  matter  from  the  soil. 
Root  hairs  can  be  easily  studied  by  sprouting  seeds  and 

*  Kims.   Plant    Propagation,  Greenhouse  and  Nursery   Practice,   Page    189. 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING 

allowing  the  seedlings  to  grow  a  few  days  between  sheets 
of  white  blotting  paper.  When  so  grown  they  are  more 
or  less  straight,  but  when  grown  in  the  soil  they  are 
much  contorted  because  of  the  contact  of  soil  particles. 
11.  Root  hairs  are  usually  most  numerous  on  plants 
growing  in  soil  that  is  dry,  and  least  in  that  which  is 
saturated  with  water.  Also,  when  the  waier  supply  de- 


FIG.   7— ROOT 

HAIR     GREATLY 

MAGNIFIED 


FIG.   8— ROOT  TIP  MUCH 

MAGNIFIED 

a,    epidermis;    b,    cortex;    c,    pie- 
rome;    d,   root    cap. 


minishes  they  become  more  numerous ;  and  when  it  be- 
comes wet,  less  abundant.  Plants  grown  in  wet  soil  and 
then  transplanted  to  soil  much  drier  will  suffer  severely 
unless  watered.  Often  they  will  die  because  they  cannot 
develop  root  hairs  fast  enough  to  supply  the  loss  of  mois- 
ture by  transpiration  from  the  leaves. 

This  finds  a  specially  important  application  in  the  prun- 
ing of  nursery  stock  at  transplanting  time ;  the  tops  of 
the  plants  must  be  cut  back  to  balance  the  unavoidable 
loss  of  roots  due  to  digging.  (Chapter  IX.)  It  may  be 
proved  very  simply  by  the  following  experiment :  Sow 
some  cabbage  or  lettuce  seeds  in  a  flat  filled  with  soil  of 
uniform  quality.  When  the  plants  have  two  or  three 
leaves  and  are  large  enough  to  prick  out,  divide  the  most 


10 


PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNfxG 


uniform  ones  into  three  groups  and  transplant  in  flats 
filled  with  soil  also  of  uniform  quality.  Keep  the  plants 
of  one  set  very  moist,  those  in  another  set  very  dry  and 
those  in  the  third  set  moderately  moist.  In  three  or  four 
weeks  transplant  the  plants  to  the  open  ground,  treating 

those  of  each  lot  in 
three  ways,  thus : 
Transplant  some  with 
the  least  possible  less 
of  any  parts,  others 
after  removing  75  per 
cent  of  the  leaf  sur- 
face and  the  third  lot 
after  the  destruction 
of  about  half  the  root 
and  the  leaf  area.  If 
the  open  ground  con- 
ditions are  fairly  uni- 
form, it  will  usually 
be  found  that  the 
plants  kept  wet  in  the 
flat  will  suffer  most, 
those  kept  dry  least. 
and  those  deprived  of 
considerable  leaf  sur- 
face in  each  lot  will 
suffer  less  than  those 
from  which  none  of  the  leaf  area  is  removed.  Don't 
BELIEVE  this  statement  simply  because  it  is  printed  in 
this  book.  Try  it.  Prove  it.  Then  you  will  understand 
why  nursery  stock  should  have  the  tops  cut  back  to  bal- 
ance the  loss  of  root  digging. 

12.  The  extent  of  the  root  system  is  usually  greater  in 
agricultural  plants  than  that  of  the  trunk,  branches  and 
leaves  combined.  Thus  the  plants  are  able  to  draw 
water  from  an  enormous  area  of  soil  particles,  prop..r- 


FIG.  9— ROOTLET  SEEN  IN  CROSS  SECTION 

a,   xylem    and    phloem;    b,    central    cylinder;    c, 

endodermis;    d,   cortex;    e,   root    hairs. 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING 


11 


if. 


tionately  the  greater  as  the  fineness  of  the  particles  and 
the  quantity  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  increase.  An  idea 
of  the  extent  of  the  root  systems  of  cultivated  plants 
may  be  gained  from  the  statement  that  a  full-grown  sun- 
flower will  fill  almost  a  full  cubic  yard  of  soil  with  its 
root  system.  Such  an  enormous  water-absorbing  area  is 
necessary  because  other 
parts  of  the  plant  (in  agri- 
cultural plants,  at  least,) 
are  not  fitted  or  at  best  are 
poorly  fitted  for  absorbing 
water. 

Even  leaves  which  are 
supposed  to  absorb  water 
when  wilted  by  rain  and 
dew  are  much  less  able  to 
do  this  than  is  popularly 
supposed.  Yes,  leaves 
wilted  by  hot  weather 
quickly  become  turgid  after 
a  shower,  but  this  is  far  less 
due  to  the  water  on  sur- 
faces than  to  the  reduction 
of  transpiration  in  the 
cooler,  moister  air  and  to 
the  increased  supply  of 
water  which  the  roots  can 
draw  upon.  Leaves  of  some 
plants,  however,  are  able  to 
take  up  water  much  more 
readily  than  others,  but 
these  are  such  as  do  not 

jt  ,   .  ,          Dotted     line    shows     diagrammatically 

Concern       the        SUDject       OI      where   roots   are  cut;    a,  what  the   pur- 
run  in cr  chaser  gets;  b,  what  is  left  in  the  soil. 

13.  Osmosis  and  diffusion  of  water  account  for  passage 
of  water  from  the  soil  through  the  root  hairs  and  upward 


FIG.  10— HOW  NURSERY  TREES 
ARE    DUG 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING      13 

in  plants.  The  movements  are  due  to  the  tendency  of 
liquids  of  different  densities  to  equalize,  the  weaker  mov- 
ing toward  and  diluting  the  stronger,  and  vice  versa.  Root 
hairs  contain  cell  sap,  which,  besides  protoplasm,  con- 
tains also  usually  a  stronger  solution  of  salts  than  does 
the  soil  water.  Hence  the  flow  of  water  is  from  the  soil 
through  the  root-hair  wall  and  from  the  root  hairs  to 
other  cells  more  and  more  remote  from  the  water-absorb- 
ing surfaces — the  interior  cells  of  the  roots,  the  stems, 
the  leaves,  etc. 

The  effect  of  this  flow  or  hydrostatic  pressure,  called 
turgor,  is  the  principal  cause  of  normal  stiffness  of  succu- 
lent vegetative  parts  of  plants.  Its  opposite  effect  (wilt- 
ing or  plasmolysis)  may  be  due  to  lack  of  sufficient  water 
to  maintain  turgor  or  to  a  soil  water  solution  stronger 
than  that  in  the  plant  tissues,  the  result  in  this  latter 
case  being  the  passage  of  water  from  the  plant  into  the 
soil  water.  So  far  as  pruning  is  concerned,  the  strength 
of  the  solution  is  of  minor  importance,  but  unless  there 
is  an  inflow  of  water  from  the  soil  to  the  roots  sufficient 
to  maintain  transpiration,  wilting  will  be  a  more  or  less 
serious  phenomenon,  in  some  cases  even  resulting  in 
death. 

14.  Root  or  sap  pressure  is  the  term  given  to  the  os- 
motic power  of  the  roots.  It  may  be  observed  when 
transpiration  is  not  too  rapid  to  offset  its  effects.  The 
most  common  phenomenon  which  proves  this  sap  pres- 
sure is  the  so-called  "bleeding"  of  grapevines,  maples, 
box  elders,  birches  and  other  plants  cut  in  spring  about 
the  time  that  growth  normally  starts.  If  the  cutting  is 
done  earlier  the  adjacent  cells  become  dry  and  shriveled 
so  the  sap  cannot  exude.  In  other  cases  the  wounded 
surfaces  may  develop  corky  layers,  may  become  clogged 
with  glutinous  or  solid  material,  or  special  growths 
(tyloses)  which  come  from  adjacent  cells  and  clog  those 
cells  or  tubes  from  which  the  major  part  of  the  bleeding 


14  PRINCIPLES   AXD    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

occurs.    It  may  be  said,  parenthetically,  that  this  bleeding 
may  produce  ill  effects  instanced  as  follows : 

15.  Vine  bleeding. — C.  C.  Newman  has  demonstrated 
the  evil  effect  of  late  spring  pruning  of  muscadine  grape- 
vines.* 

Two  vines  growing  side  by  side  were  pruned,  one  November  15 
and  the  other  February  15.  The  vine  pruned  in  November  did  not 
bleed  at  all  as  the  spring  advanced  and  produced  a  wonderful  crop 
of  fine  fruit.  The  vine  pruned  in  February  began  to  bleed  as  soon 
as  the  weather  turned  warm,  slowly  at  first,  but  bleeding  more 
freely  as  the  spring  advanced.  Drops  of  sap  could  be  seen  steadily 
dripping  from  the  end  of  each  vine  that  had  been  cut.  The  vine 
pruned  in  February  was  10  days  later  in  putting  out  leaves  than  the 
one  pruned  in  November.  The  growth  was  very  feeble  and  it  set 
very  little  fruit,  most  of  the  canes  dying  during  the  summer. 

To  form  some  idea  as  to  the  amount  of  sap  that  would  flow  from 
a  vine  that  had  been  pruned  too  late  in  the  season,  a  third  vine  was 
pruned  in  November,  and  on  March  20  one  cane,  1A  inch  in  di- 
ameter, was  cut  on  the  same  vine  and  a  rubber  tube  fastened  over 
it  so  as  to  conduct  the  sap  to  a  large  glass  jug,  the  mouth  of  which 
was  closed  with  a  cork,  through  which  the  rubber  tube  passed.  The 
vine  began  to  bleed  freely  from  the  cane  cut  March  20,  but  the  canes 
cut  in  November  did  not  bleed  at  all.  A  careful  record  was  kept 
of  the  sap  collected,  and  in  four  weeks  from  the  time  the  cane  began 
to  bleed,  23  pounds  of  sap  had  been  collected  from  this  one  cane. 
The  loss  of  sap  through  this  cane  affected  the  entire  vine,  and  its 
growth  was  checked  considerably. 

16.  Transpiration  is  the  passage  into  the  air  of  water 
in  vapor  form  from  leaves  and  other  green  and  growing 
parts  of  plants.    Thus  a  very  great  part  of  the  water  ab- 
sorbed by  the  root  hairs  finds  its  way  into  the  air.     Cer- 
tain plants  (eucalyptus  trees),  because  of  their  ability  to 
transpire  immense  quantities  of  water,  are  used  to  re- 
move excess   water  from   soils   that  cannot   readily   be 
drained  in  any  other  way.     As  instances  among  agricul- 
tural plants  it  may  be  mentioned  that  experiments  with  a 
little  tree  have  shown  that  (proportionately)  an  apple  tree 
30  years  old   would  probably  transpire  250  pounds  of 
water  a  day,  or  about  20  tons  during  the  growing  season. 
At  this  rate  an  apple  orchard  with  trees  set  40  x  40  feet — - 

*  S.   C.  Bulletin    132,   Page  7. 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING      15 

27  trees  to  the  acre — would  transpire  540  tons  in  a  season  ! 
Such  facts,  estimations  and  deductions  as  these  indicate 
the  importance  of  water  conservation  in  trees  and  shrubs 
by  pruning  and  in  the  soil  by  cultural  practices. 

17.  The  transpiration  apparatus. — Water  escapes  from 
plant  tissue  into  the  air  mainly  through  minute  openings 
(stomata)    in    the   epidermis   of 

leaves  and  growing  shoots. 
Lenticels  in  the  bark  of  older 
shoots  and  branches  perform  a 
similar  function.  Some  water 
may  also  escape  more  or  less  di- 
rectly through  the  epidermis  of 
delicate  and  very  young  leaves 

and  shoots  before  the  cutiniza-  FjQ  12_EPIDERMAI  CELLS 
tion  of  this  epidermis.  AND  STOMATA  FROM  A  LEAF 

18.  Stomata  (singular,  stoma). — "Openings  in  the  epi- 
dermis of  plants  for  the  admission  of  air  and  the  libera- 
tion of  water;  breathing  pore"  (Crozier). 

19.  How  stomata  operate. — Stomata  are  doors  through 
the  epidermis  to  the  chambers  and  contorted  corridors 
which  constitute  the  aerating,  intercellular  spaces  of  leaf 
and  other  green  tissue.     They  open  and  close  according 
to  the  intricate  action  of  growth  factors,  which  operate 
mostly  in  the  tissues,  though  external  factors — light,  tem- 
perature, motion  and  humidity  of  the  air,  water  content 
of  the  soil,  etc. — may  also  operate  to  a  greater  or  lesser  ex- 
tent.    Since  the  protoplasm  in  every  cell  of  the  transpir- 
ing tissue  is  rich  in  water,  and  since  every  cell  borders  an 
intercellular  space,  the  air  in  the  intercellular  parts  be- 
comes heavy  with  water  vapor.    When  the  stomata  are 
open  and  the  external  air  conditions  favor  it,  the  outward 
passage  of  this  water-saturated  air  is  rapid.     Plants  in 
nature  check  transpiration  in  many  ways,  such  as  de- 
velopment of  hairs  or  wax  on  their  cuticles,  by  thickened 
cuticles,  placing  their  stomata  in  cavities,  reducing  the 


16  I'kIXt  Il'l.KS   AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 

number  of  stomata  in  given  areas,  developing  water-hold- 
ing tissues,  reducing  the  amount  of  surface  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  so  on.  Artificially,  transpiration  may  be  re- 
duced by  preventing  the  development  of  excessive  leaf 
area,  as  when  nitrogenous  plant  food  is  withheld,  and  by 
pruning  off  unnecessary  branches  and  twigs  and  even  in- 
dividual leaves. 

Instances  of  water  loss  effects  during  dry  spells  are  the 
wilting  and  drying  up  of  certain  herbaceous  annuals,  the 
premature  defoliation  of  deciduous  perennials,  the  partial 
or  total  defoliation  of  fruit  trees  followed  by  the- develop- 
ment of  new  growth  subsequent  to  a  wet  spell  in  early 
autumn.  Such  instances  indicate  that  short  water  supply 
during  the  growing  season  tends  to  maturity  of  all  parts, 
especially  fruits  and  seeds,  the  former  of  which  are  often 
altered  in  texture  and  even  chemical  composition. 

20.  Transportation  of  water  and  plant  food. — In  all 
plants  with  which  this  volume  deals  there  are  "vessels" 
or  conduits  which  greatly  facilitate  the  transpiration  of 
liquids.  These  are  of  two  classes.  (1)  Some  of  these, 
the  large  and  numerous  xylem  vessels  (25)  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  cambium,  lead  from  the  water-absorbing  areas 
to  the  transpiring  areas.  Through  them  the  greater  part 
of  the  copious  "transpiration  stream"  ascends.  From 
them  also  more  or  less  water  diffuses  to  cells  which  need 
it,  and  which  have  enough  tension  to  draw  it.  This 
stream  also  carries  mineral  nutrients  from  part  to  part 
upward.  (2)  Other  of  these  vessels  (sieve  tubes),  smaller 
ones  than  those  just  mentioned,  are  outside  the  cambium. 
They  lead  from  the  chlorophyll-containing  parts  of  the 
water-transpiring  areas  to  all  regions  of  the  plant  where 
growth  and  food  storage  'are  taking  place  and  pass  by 
diffusion  through  the  cell  walls  where  such  activities  are 
occurring.  These  smaller  conduits  carry  the  "elaborated" 
plant  foods  made  from  water  and  carbon  dioxide  in  the 
process  of  photosynthesis  (29). 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING 


17 


In  the  first  case  the  sap  will  continue  to  ascend  for  a 
considerable  time  after  the  stem  has  been  girdled ;  in  the 
second  the  stem  will  increase  considerably  in  girth,  the 
process  requiring  several  weeks  or  months,  dependent 
upon  the  kind  of  plant,  the  size  of  the  stem  and  other 
factors.  The  following  instances  will  prove  interesting 
at  this  oint. 


FIG.  13— THREE  SECTIONS  OF  OAK  BRANCH  SHOWING  VARIOUS  TISSUES 
Upper  surface,  cross  section;  front  face  (from  /  to  middle)  longitudinal  section; 
extreme  left,  tangential  section  showing  ends  of  medullary  rays;  left  center,  cross 
section  showing  medullary  ray;  a,  cortex;  fc,  bast;  c,  cambium;  d,  spring-formed 
wood;  e,  autumn-formed  wood  of  previous  year;  /,  lenticel. 

21.  Tenacity  of  life  in  trees.— The  fact  that  the  course  of  the 
crude  sap  in  exogenous  plants  is  upward  through  the  sap-wood  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  tenacity  of  life  in  trees  that  have  heen  de- 
prived of  their  bark  completely  around  their  trunks  to  considerable 
heights.  For  instance,  trees  are  often  girdled  by  mice  and  rabbits 
to  a  height  of  several  inches  or  even  a  foot,  so  that  it  is  thought 
necessary  to  resort  to  bridge  or  repair  grafting  (128)  to  help  the 
healing  process.  More  remarkable,  however,  is  the  instance  re- 
corded by  I.  Simpson  in  the  Gardeners'  Chronicle — the  peeling  of 
standing  oaks  to  the  height  of  20  to  40  feet  and  the  subsequent  leaf- 
ing out  of  these  trees  and  the  continuance  of  these  leaves  even  to 
the  end  of  the  season. 


18  PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

The  reasons  for  the  peeling  practice  are  that  timber  merchants 
believe  timber  so  peeled  keeps  in  better  condition  than  when  peeled 
after  felling.  It  costs  much  more  to  peel  the  trees  standing  than 
felled.  Peeling  begins  as  soon  as  the  sap  begins  to  rise,  and  is 
continued  till  the  trees  come  into  leaf,  when  the  bark  cannot  be  de- 
tached. Many  of  the  trees  are  completely  stripped  of  their  bark 
from  bottom  to  top,  except  the  topmost  branches,  yet  large  un- 
barked  tops  continue  to  swell  their  buds  and  come  into  full  leaf, 
while  the  peeled  trunks  up  to  the  heads  are  barkless  and  apparently 
as  dry  as  a  board  for  perhaps  20  to  40  feet  below.  On  some  of  the 
trees  the  leaves  fade  before  the  summer  is  over,  but  on  others  they 
continue  till  the  end  of  the  season. 

Cases  similar  to  these  came  under  the  writer's  observation  at  the 
close  of  the  Spanish-American  war,  when  450  U.  S.  army  mules 
were  turned  loose  at  Washington  on  the  "Potomac  Flats,"  where 
they  stripped  the  bark  as  high  as  they  could  reach  from  about  100 
Carolina  poplars.  The  trees  continued  green  till  the  close  of  the 
season,  but,  with  a  few  notable  exceptions,  failed  to  leaf  out  the 
following  spring.  These  exceptions  all  had  retained  strips  of  un- 
injured bark  from  base  to  branches  in  positions  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  mules  so  that  food  elaborated  by  the  leaves  could  return  to 
the  roots  and  thus  maintain  the  life  of  the  trees. 

In  the  orchard  of  the  author's  boyhood  an  Onondaga  pear  tree 
through  some  accident  became  "barked"  from  the  ground  to  the 
first  branches  and  for  fully  three-fourths  of  its  girth,  yet  it  bore 
excellent  fruit  for  many  years  thereafter. 

22.  The  reason  why. — In  commenting  on  such  cases  as  these  A.  C. 
Forbes  in  a  later  issue  of  the  Gardeners'  Chronicle  says  in  sub- 
stance :  The  partial  development  of  the  annual  shoots  in  trees  de- 
prived of  their  bark  is  only  one  of  several  interesting  facts  to  be 
seen  in  trees  in  a  more  or  less  unnatural  condition.  The  growth  of 
the  shoots  on  the  barked  trees  is  in  no  way  more  remarkable  than 
it  would  be  had  the  bark  remained  on. 

The  generally  accepted  view  of  tree  growth  is  that  the  watery 
sap  rises  through  the  outer  rings  of  the  stem  into  the  leaves,  there 
becomes  greatly  changed,  and  passes  from  the  leaves  through  special 
vessels  in  the  bast  or  inner  bark  downward  to  the  cambium  and 
other  growing  and  storage  tissues.  The  removal  of  the  bark,  there- 
fore, if  not  carried  too  far,  does  not  interfere  directly  with  the 
growth  and  support  of  the  leaves  but  prevents  the  food  which  they 
prepare  being  put  to  its  proper  use  by  the  destruction  of  the  down- 
ward conducting  channels  and  the  cambium  layer.  The  continuation 
of  growth  in  the  annual  shoots  under  such  circumstances  depends 
upon  the  capability  of  the  stem  to  retain  its  water-conducting  power, 
and  the  amount  of  reserve  material  contained  in  the  roots,  which  are 
thus  enabled  to  carry  on  their  absorptive  functions. 

In  the  case  of  trees  barked  up  to  their  smallest  branches  and 
twigs,  the  water-conducting  power  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  stem 


PLANT   PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING 


19 


is  soon  lost,  or  reduced  below  the  needs  of  the  leaves,  •  owing  to 
outer  influences,  such  as  sun  and  wind  carrying  off  most  of  the  sap 
by  evaporation  before  it  reaches  the  grow- 
ing shoots.  Where  large  branches  are  ringed 
at  their  bases,  however,  so  that  at  least 
a  part  of  the  bark  of  the  crown  remains 
connected  with  the  roots,  their  growth 
proceeds  for  many  years  with  little  or  no 
decrease  of  vigor  or  health  and  ceases 
only  when  the  decay  of  the  barked  portion 
cuts  off  the  supply  of  sap. 

The  growth  of  the  roots  of  trees 
barked  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  usu- 
ally continues  for  one  or  two  years  after 
barking,  though  whether  this  is  due  en- 
tirely to  the  store  of  reserve  materials  in 
the  fleshy  part  of  the  cortical  tissue,  or 
partly  to  root  grafting  from  neighboring 
trees,  it  is  difficult  to  say. 

According  to  some  authorities,  the  r:se 
of  sap  is  confined  to  one  or  two-year-ol  1 
rings  in  certain  species,  while  in  others  as 
many  as  five  or  six  are  concerned  in  the 
business.  In  the  latter  the  sap  ascent 
would  probably  be  continued  for  s?veral 
years  longer  than  in  the  former,  •  -hile  the 
resistance  offered  by  the  wood  to  de jay- 
would  also  exercise  its  influence.  In  resi- 
nous conifers  the  saturation  of  the  wood 
on  the  outside  of  the  barked  stem  with 
resin,  which  occurs  when  the  cells  and 
cell-walls  lose  their  water,  acts  as  a  pro- 
tection against  the  cracking  and  drying  of 
the  stem  by  atmospheric  conditions,  and 
its  infection  by  fungi. 

23.  Felled  trees  develop  sprouts.— An- 
other interesting  feature  of  the  vitality  of 
woody  tissue  is  the  throwing  out  of  ad- 
ventitious shoots  or  "water-branches"  by 
the  tree  trunks  felled  in  winter  and  left 
lying  with  the  bark  on.  Elm,  oak,  poplar, 
willow,  etc.,  on  damp  ground,  continue 
growing  in  this  way  for  two  or  three 
years,  and  the  dwarf  shoots  on  young 
larch  stems  and  branches  left  on  the 
ground  also  develop  and  keep  green  for  a 
month  or  two.  Of  course  such  growths 
are  dependent  entirely  upon  the  reserve 


FIG.    14— CROSS    SECTION 

OF    STEM 

This  microphotograph 
shows  how  the  stem  of  a 
tuIiT  tree  (Liriodendron  tu- 
lipifera)  looks.  Notice  the 
arcs  of  the  annular  rings,  the 
spoke-like  medullary  rays, 
th<:  bark  (below)  and  the  pith 
(above).  This  stem  is  four 
years  old. 


20  I'KLXC'iri.KS   AND    PUACTICK    OK    1'KTXIXG 

materials  in  the  sap-wood  and  the  inner  bark.  The  increase  in  the 
wood  ring,  which  accompanies  them,  is  almost  nil.  These  growths, 
however,  are  of  economic  importance,  since  they  are  the  means  of 
removing  the  starchy  compounds  from  the  timber — compounds  which 
indirectly  do  much  to  hasten  decay.  It  may  be  that  the  reputation 
of  winter-felled  timber  is  partly  due  to  this  fact. 

24.  "Phloem,  that  portion  of  a  fibro-vascular  bundle  in 
plants  containing  the  bast  and  sieve  tissue.     Tn  exogens 
it  is  always  sharply  defined  from  the  remaining  portion 
(xylem,  25)  by  a  layer  of  cambium.     The  inner  bark  is 
derived  from  the  phloem,  the  wood  from  the  xylem.    The 
elaborated  plant  food  from  the  leaves  passes  down  and 
is  distributed  by  the  phloem. 

25.  "Xylem,    or    woody    portion    of    a    fibro-vascular 
bundle  which  contains  the  larger  continuous  air-holding 
vessels  and  the  walls  of  whose  cells  are  often  thickened 
and  lignificd.     The  xylem  is  separated  from  the  phloem 
by  the  cambium,  when  there  is  any,  and  it  usually  oc- 
cupies the«side  of  the  bundle  toward  the  center  of  the 
stem.     Water  with  the  mineral  compounds  in  solution 
passes  up  through  the  xylem  to  the  leaves."  * 

26.  Fibro-vascular    bundles. — The    conducting    tissue 
discussed   above   is   arranged    in    fibro-vascular   bundles. 
In  monocotyledonous  plants  (sorghum,  corn)  these  bundles 
are  distributed  irregularly  through  softer  tissue  (paren- 
chyma).   Because  of  this  irregular  distribution,  and  also 
because  there  is  no  cambium  within  the  bundles,  mono- 
cotyledonous plants  usually  have  neither  true  bark,  cambium 
rings  nor  annual  rings  of  wood.     In  dicotyledonous  plants, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  fibro-vascular  bundles  have  a  cam- 
bium which  separates  the  xylem  from  the  phloem.     Tn 
dicotyledonous  plants,  which  form  a  wood-ring,  the  primary 
tissue  of  the  bundles  forms  a  layer  in   which  the  outer 
part  contains  the  phloem  and  the  inner  the  xylem.    Since 
the  cambium  is  between  these  two  sets  of  tissue,  new 
xylem  and  phloem   are  developed   as  growth   proceeds ; 

*  Kains,   Plant   Propagation,  Greenhoure   anJ   Nursery   Practice,   Page    146. 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING 


21 


and,  as  the  tissues  become  old,  they  gradually  cease  to 
function  in  water  and  food  conduction.  Thus  in  trees 
and  shrubs  the  interior  tissues  serve  only  to  strengthen 
the  stems.  In  other  words,  the  "heart  wood"  is  dead. 

The  earliest  formed  of  the  vascular  bundles  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  more  or  less  circular  series ;  those  formed 
later  are  developed  from  the  cambium  between  them. 
Ultimately  such  large  numbers  of  these  bundles  may  be 
formed  that  in  woody  and  semi-woody  dicotyledonous  plants 
they  may  form  a  cylinder  of  wood,  though  the  indi- 
vidual bundles  may  be  partially  or  wholly  separated  from 
each  other  by  thin  plates  of  wood  called  medullary  rays 


FIG.     15— FIBRO-VASCULAR    BUNDLE 

A,  cross  section,  phloem  showing  sieve  tubes,  a,  companion  cell,  e,  scleren- 
chyma  and  g,  parenchyma,  b,  xylem,  c,  showing  vessels,  d,  between  the  two  cam- 
bium, /;  B,  longitudinal  section.  Outside  cells  parenchyma.  Letters  in  A  apply  to 
various  tissues. 

(Fig.  14).  Since  the  cambium  in  such  plants  produces 
new  xylem  on  its  interior,  it  is  steadily  moved  annually 
or  seasonally  farther  outward  from  the  center  of  the 
stem ;  since  new  phloem  is  developed  on  the  outer  side 
of  the  cambium,  both  the  wood  and  the  bark  increase  in 
thickness  and  the  stems,  as  a  whole,  increase  in  girth ; 
and  since  the  xylem  developed  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season  is  thinner  walled  than  that  produced  later  when 
growth  is  not  so  active,  the  characteristic  annual  or 
annular  rings  so  readily  seen  in  cross  sections  of  dicoty- 
ledonous woody  plants  are  formed. 


22 


PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


27.  Leaf  venation. — As  has  been  stated,  the  xylem 
parts  of  the  vascular  bundles  lead  from  the  absorbing 
areas  of  the  roots  to  the  transpiring  areas,  and  the  phloem 
parts  from  the  transpiring  areas  to  parts  where  growth 


FIG.  16— CONTRASTING  GROWTHS  OF  MAZZARD  CHERRY 
The  specimen  at  the  left  shows  one  year's  growth  in  a  thicket  where  the  tree 
"pulled"  for  light.  The  two  lowest  branches  and  a  little  stub  are  dead.  The 
middle  specimen  is  the  upper  part  of  the  first,  three  years  old  at  its  base.  Note 
how  it  continued  to  extend  until  it  reached  favorable  light,  where  it  developed 
branches.  The  specimen  on  the  right  is  as  old  as  the  middle  piece — three  years. 
Note  how  much  shorter  and  how  much  more  branchy  it  is.  It  grew  in  the  open 
ground,  where  it  had  no  competitors  except  grass  for  light  and  air. 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  KELATED  TO  PRUNING 


23 


or  storage  is  occurring.  It  remains  only  to  be  mentioned 
that  each  rootlet  and  each  leaf  are  more  or  less  directly 
connected  by  vascular  bundles  in  more  or  less  definite 
number,  depending  upon  the  species.  In  leaves  these 
bundles  constitute  the  "ribs"  or  veins  which  serve  both 
as  conduits  and  as  stiffcners  of  tlje  leaves  themselves. 

28.  Chlorophyll,  the  green  coloring  matter  of  plants, 
is  the  most  intimate  link  which  bindslifetothesun.  Itisthe 
laboratory  in  which  is  made  the^&arth's  supply  of  organic 
matter,  including  all  fuel.  THough  sometimes  obscured 


Fatisade  ^arench 


FIG.   17— DIAGRAM  OF  CUT  EDGE   OF  LEAF 
Note  the  various  tissues.     (After  Stevens,  Plant  Anatomy.) 

by  other  colors,  it  is  characteristic  of  all  higher  plants, 
algae  and  mosses,  but  is;  absent  in  fungi.  Plants  contain- 
ing it  may  grow  in  partial  shade  or  in  the  full  glare  of  the 
sun,  but  never  in  total  darkness.  The  relation  of  light  to 
chlorophyll  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  sizes  and  forms 
of  the  leaf  blades,  the  arrangement  of  leaves  upon  their 


no 

»eae  two   apple  tree*  are  the   same   age     thror 

« In.  \\    >;r«>\v    in    the  o|  ••    r-ut    ttiai 

t     and 

c    o(    In.  k    ol     liKt'^  -    it^    v«ri<>ti«!    nature    and    proKiMx     shonjj    root 

haa   "p""'1'1  -    l'Rh»-      Note  the   diffciTnk-«>    in   nmurrr    ol    bi  .•. 


1'I.AXT   PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING 


25 


branches  and  the  arrangement  of  the  branches  (Fig.  20). 
Plants  growing  alone  in  the  open  develop  leaves  uni- 
formly on  all  sides  (Fig.  20),  those  growing  in  groups 
lack  leaves  where  other  plants  compete  with  them  for 
light  (Figs.  18,  22,  23).  The  same  is  true  of  branches  and 
twigs  in  trees.  Hence  the  importance  of  pruning  so  as 
to  admit  ample  light  to  supply  leaves  on  the  interior  twigs 
and  branches  of  trees  and  shrubs ;  for  when  such  parts 
are  poorly  lighted  they  cannot  function  properly.  In 
many  cases — for  instance,  interior  twigs  on  young  (three 
to  five-year-old)  peach  trees  improperly  pruned — they  die 
for  lack  of  light. 

29.  Photosynthesis  is  the  process  whereby  the  chloro- 
phyll is  able,  in  the  presence  of  light,  to  construct  organic 
foods  from  the  crude  materials  contained  in  the  soil 
water  and  the  air.  Though 
light,  carbon  dioxide  and 
water  are  essential,  the  proc- 
ess is  influenced  by  tempera- 
ture and  other  factors  unnec- 
essary to  discuss.  The  intensity 
and  the  quality  of  light  bear 
a  more  or  less  complex  rela- 
tion to  food  manufacture. 
When  the  temperature  is  fa- 
vorable, the  capacity  of  plants 

to  produce  finished  plant  food     FIG.  19— CROSS  SECTION  OF  A 
is     proportional     to     the     in-        Uppcr  and  ^  epidermis  with 

tensitV    Of   the    light    Up    tO   the       stomata,  a ;  air  chambers,  ft,  or  inter- 
,.       .      '  .  .  cellular  spaces;  cross  section  of  leaf 

limit    Of    the    available    Carbon       vein,  c,  in  the   parenchyma  or  soft, 

dioxide  and  water.  In  sup- 
port of  this  statement  instances  may  be  suggested  of 
plants  which  stand  the  full  glare  of  the  sun  and  of 
others  whose  maximum  is  reached  in  partial  shade.  Too 
strong  emphasis,  however,  must  not  be  placed  on  this 
intensity  factor,  because  increased  transpiration  of  water 


26  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OK    J-KTMNC 

may  tend  to  dry  the  active  tissues,  close  the  stomata  and 
otherwise  reduce  photosynthesis. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  a  vigorous  Concord  grape- 
vine in  good  vineyard  practice  may  expose  to  the  light  a 
leaf  surface  of  10  to  12  square  yards.  Such  an  area  has 
been  estimated  as  manufacturing  about  a  pound  of  or- 
ganic matter  in  a  day  during  the  active  growing  season. 
From  this  calculation  a  hazy  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
work  done  by  a  vineyard  or  an  orchard  between,  say, 
April  and  October,  and  a  hint  may  be  gained  as  to  the 
importance  of  pruning  and  training  so  as  to  enhance  the 
process  of  photosynthesis,  especially  in  fruit-bearing 
plants. 

30.  Growth  and  growth  relations. — Though  growth  and 
growth  relations  have  been  touched  upon  indirectly  in 
the  previous  chapter,  it  is  necessary  that  certain  of  their 
phases  be  discussed  separately,  because  a  true  conception 
of  them  is  essential  in  pruning.     From  the  agricultural 
standpoint,  growth  is  measured  by  yield ;  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  forester,   usually  by  size  or  development ; 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  ornamental  horticulturist,  by 
beauty  of  specimen.     These  ends  are  all  affected  by  va- 
rious internal  and  external  factors,  such  as  (1)  vitality, 
heredity  and  food  supply  and  (2)  environment,  moisture, 
temperature,  oxygen,  character  of  food  and  light. 

31.  Proof  of  growth. — Popularly,  growth  is  evidenced 
in  flowering  plants  by  increased  weight  and  size,  by  de- 
velopment from  the  seedling  stage  to  maturity  and  the 
quick  production  of  stems,  leaves,  flowers  and  fruits.     It 
is  dependent  upon  the  formation  and  enlargement  of  cells 
and  may  lead  to  strongly  marked  changes  in  both  internal 
structure  and  external  form.     The  most  evident  of  these 
changes  are  (1)  differentiation,  due  to  structural  changes 
either  within  a  single  cell  or  a  group  of  cells;  and  (2) 
extension    or    increased    length,    )ften    accompanied    by- 
greater  girth. 


FIG.  20— SIDE  VIEW  OF  AN  APPLE   SEEDLING 

Note  how  the  leaves  are  arranged  on  the  stem.  Each  extends  outward  at  a 
different  angle  from  the  one  above  and  below  it.  Thus  it  takes  advantage  of  Us 
opportunity  to  get  light.  Note  view  from  above  in  Fig.  21. 


28  PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 

32.  The  tip  of  the  stem  and  of  the  branch  in  flowering 
plants  is  the  point  from  which  extension  takes  place. 
Since  any  wood  bud  may  become  the  starting  point  of  a 
new  branch  or  stem,  this  statement  is  general.  Dissection 


FIG.    21— SEEDLING    APPLE    SEEN    FROM    ABOVE 

Here  the  tree  shown  in  Fig.  20  shows  how  the  leaves  apparently  make  an  al- 
most perfect  rosette.  Thus  they  get  the  fullest  advantage  of  the  light.  Note 
the  spaces  almost  opposite  each  other  where  it  seems  as  if  a  leaf  were  missing. 
These  "jogs"  were  caused  by  the  nearness  of  other  seedlings  in  the  nursery  row; 
there  was  not  the  same  chance  to  get  light  as  in  the  other  directions. 

has  shown  that  extension  is  dependent  upon  no  one  cell. 
but  that  a  rather  indefinite  cell  area,  which  constitutes 
the  primary  meristem,  is  the  originating  tissue.  Here 
division  rapidly  takes  place,  while  immediately  in  the  rear 
of  the  dividing  cells  is  the  area  of  extension. 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING      29 

33.  Leaf  formation  takes  place  immediately  in  rear  of 
the  stem  apex.     In  some  plants  (apple)  the  leaves  occur 
in  spiral  order,  in  others  opposite  (lilac),  in  still  others 
alternately  (elm)  and  so  on.     Incipiently,  they  are  tiny 
swellings,  but  soon  they  flatten  and  grow  more  rapidly 
than  does  the  stem  apex,  over  which  they  curve  more  or 
less  to  form  a  bud.    In  few  trees  does  this  leafy  axis  con- 
tinue to  extend  during  the  growing  season.     Where  ex- 
tension occurs  each  leaf  is  left  behind  in  the  spiral,  the 
whorl    or    other    natural    formation    as    the    tip    moves 
forward.    New  points  of  growth  are  usually  differentiated 
later  as  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves ;  and  when  the 
leaves  fall  at  the  end  of  the  growing  season  these  buds 
become 

34.  Resting  buds. — In  most  trees  and  shrubs,  at  least 
in  temperate  and  cold  climates,  the  shoot  axis  terminates 
in  late  summer  or  early  fall  in  a  bud  which  is  said  to  re- 
main dormant  until  the  following  spring,  so  also  do  the 
axillary  buds.    This  dormancy  is  not  total,  since  there  is 
some  slight  growth  activity,  except  perhaps  during  the 
coldest  weather   (54,   55).     The   resting  buds   are   very 
short  leaf  axes  covered  by  bud  scales  (specialized  leaves) 
which  serve  as  protectors  of  the  more  important  internal 
parts.    While  the  buds  are  said  in  the  fall  and  the  winter 
to  be  resting  or  dormant,  they  may  have  been  ready  for 
the  "rest"  as  early  as  July.    They  do  not,  however,  usually 
appear  to  be  resting  until  the  leaves  fall.  In  spring  with  the 
return  to  conditions  favorable  to  growth  activity  the  rest- 
ing buds  vapidly  unfold,  either  a  leafy  shoot  (quince,  dier- 
villa)  a  flower  (peach,  golden  bell — Forsythia,  Fig.  296),  a 
cluster   of   flowers    (cherry,   spice   bush — Lindcra)    or   a 
cluster  containing  both  leaves  and  flowers  (apple,  thorn— 
Crat&gus) . 

35.  The  types  of  stem  extension  from  resting  buds, 

though  diverse,  may  be  grouped  in  two  classes,  though 
these    may    present    numerous    cases    of    over-lapping. 


30  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

(1)  Rapid  extension  of  resting  buds  into  shoots  which 
bear  no  other  parts  than  those  already  in  the  buds  them- 
selves. In  this  group  belong  many  north  temperate  trees 
and  shrubs,  among  which  beech  and  pine  may  be  taken 
as  typical,  the  former  having  a  segmented,  the  latter  an 
unsegmented  shoot.  In  spring  the  beech  bud  gradually 
swells,  and  at  first  presents  a  fairly  general  extension  of 
the  internodes.  Soon  the  bud  has  doubled  its  original 
length,  at  which  time  the  method  of  extension  may  best 
be  noted.  Beginning  at  the  basal  node,  it  will  be  seen 
that  each  internode  in  turn  becomes  successively  most 
active,  so  that  the  terminal  internodes  are  the  last  to 
extend  rapidly.  The  pine  shows  a  similar  development 
except  that,  having  an  unsegmented  stem,  the  most  ac- 
tively extending  part  moves  gradually  forward  in  a  more 
uniform  manner  than  in  the  case  of  the  beech.  Apples 
and  pears  present  much  the  same  method  as  the  beech. 

(2)  Some  trees  and  shrubs,  such  as  willow  and  lilac, 
normally  develop  more  leaves  than  those  wintered  over 
in  the  resting  bud,  so  that  the  total  number  of  nodes  and 
internodes  at  the  end  of  the  growing  season  is  larger  than 
the  numbers  represented  in  the  buds.  The  peach  may 
sometimes  develop  leaves,  nodes  and  internodes  in  this 
way,  though  it  perhaps  generally  develops  as  described 
under  class  one.  This  phenomenon  is  probably  more 
common  in  young  trees  than  in  older  ones.  For  instance, 
old  trees  of  the  cottonwood  or  necklace  poplar  (Populus 
monilifera)  may  develop  no  more  leaves,  nodes  and  inter- 
nodes, than  were  contained  in  the  resting  bud ;  young 
ones  may  develop  three,  four  or  even  more  times  as  many. 
From  such  instances  it  is  concluded  that  conditions,  such 
as  age,  environment  and  character  of  season,  may  ac- 
count for  the  differences. 

The  secondary  growth  of  shoots,  especially  of  fruit 
trees,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  normal  phenomena 
discussed  above.  Such  growth  usually  occurs  during  a 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING  31 

moist,  late  summer  or  early  autumn  following  a  more  or 
less  protracted  drouth.  It  may  also  be  due  to  excess  of 
nitrogenous  plant  food  and  an  ample  water  supply  in  the 
soil.  Such  growths  are  usually  undesirable  because  they 
are  developed  from  buds  which  should  continue  dormant 
until  the  following  spring  and  also  because  they  usually 
do  not  have  sufficient  time  to  ripen  fully  before  winter 
sets  in.  Consequently  much  of  the  growths  so  produced 
must  be  pruned  off,  to  the  greater  or  lesser  loss  of  wood 
that  if  grown  in  normal  time  would  be  valuable  for  fruit 
production  or  other  purpose. 

Hence  cultural  practices,  such  as  tillage,  drainage,  fer- 
tilizing, cover  and  inter-cropping,  have  a  direct  bearing 
upon  pruning,  because  these  affect  more  or  less  definitely 
the  production  of  wood.  In  many  kinds  of  trees,  es- 
pecially apple  and  pear,  leaves  appear  to  be  borne  in 
clusters  on  very  short  twigs  called  spurs.  This  phe- 
nomenon is  due  to  the  suppression  of  the  internodes  and 
the  consequent  shortening  of  the  axis.  Sometimes  the 
reverse  of  this  case  occurs  on  a  spur,  as  when  a  bud,  which 
might  be  expected  to  continue  the  slow  extension  of  a 
spur,  suddenly  elongates  into  a  slender  twig  such  as 
shown  in  Fig.  36. 

36.  The  relation  of  leaves  to  light  intensity  is  one  of 
the  most  commonly  observed  of  plant  growth  phenomena. 
Everyone  who  has  had  anything  to  do  with  plants,  es- 
pecially those  grown  in  dwellings,  knows  that  leaves  and 
leafy  shoots  "turn  toward  the  light."  This  is  the  more 
marked  as  the  room  is  poorly  illuminated ;  the  plant  parts 
capable  of  doing  so  soon  bend  toward  the  window  or  other 
light  source.  Similar  effects  may  be  seen  in  the  open. 
The  explanation  for  this  phenomenon  is  that  the  parts 
which  thus  change  position  do  so  in  order  that  the 
chlorophyll  may  secure  the  maximum  illumination  and 
thus  function  to  best  advantage. 

Broad-leaved  plants  generally  form  a  more  or  less  com- 
plete mosaic  of  green.  Especiallv  good  examples  of  this 


32  PRINCIPLES    AM)    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

are  Boston  ivy  and  grapevines;  the  leaves  completely  hide 
the  flowers,  fruit,  woody  parts  and  the  supports.  Among 
trees,  Norway  and  sugar  maples,  especially  the  former, 
are  very  striking  because,  when,  say,  30  or  more  years 
old  uninjured  specimens  growing  by  themselves  show  a 
perfect  envelope  of  leaves  covering  bare  branches  and 
trunk  beneath.  In  neglected  fruit  trees  similar  though 
much  less  marked  development  may  be  observed. 

To  carry  the  illustration  and  the  lesson  it  teaches  still 
further,  the  same  effects  may  be  noted  in  trees  and  shrubs 
that  grow  in  close  groups,  whether  in  a  state  of  nature 
or  in  a  plantation.  This  has  two  very  striking  applica- 
tions, one  in  the  forest,  the  other  in  the  fruit  plantation. 


FIG.  22— "LEGGY"   PEACH   TREES 

Adequate  spacing  and  judicious  pruning  would  have  made  these  more  stocky.     They 
are  far  too  tall  and  too  likely  to  be  injured  by  wind. 

Trees  which  grow  close  together  in  the  forest  produce 
so  much  shade  that  their  lower  branches,  being  deprived 
of  light,  die  and  ultimately  fall  off,  and  only  the  tops 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY  AS  RELATED  TO  PRUNING      33 

continue  leafy.  (Figs.  25,  26,  27.)  The  result  is  the  long, 
bare  trunks  which  characterize  forest  trees,  whereas  the 
same  species  growing  in  the  open  would  have  short, 
branchy  trunks.  From  the  lumberman's  point  of  view, 
the  former  are  the  more  desirable,  but  they  are  produced 
at  too  great  a  risk  of  decay  by  means  of  fungi  and  bac- 
teria, which  may  enter  through  decaying  stubs  of  limbs. 
In  the  other  striking  application,  namely,  the  fruit  planta- 
tion, similar  results  follow  the  too  close 

37.  Spacing  of  trees  and  shrubs. — Just  as  in  the  forest, 
trees  planted  too  closely  together  grow  inordinately  tall. 
(Fig.  25,  27.)  Their  lower  twigs  and  limbs  die  because 
improperly  lighted,  and. the  orchardist  is  put  to  serious 
expense  in  pruning,  spraying,  thinning  and  harvesting. 
Nowhere  is  this  so  conspicuous  as  in  neglected,  closely 
set  orchards.  (Fig.  22.)  Often  orchards  which  so  far 
as  the  health  of  the  trees  is  concerned  might  be  renovated 
cannot  be  so  worked  over  because  too  much  wood  would 
have  to  be  removed  to  bring  the  tops  down  to  workable 
heights,  or  too  many  trees  would  have  to  be  cut  out  to 
leave  profitable  numbers  in  given  areas. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  PRUNING* 

38.  Good  and  bad  effects  of  pruning. — Every  owner  of 
a  fruit  tree  expects  to  prune,  or  at  least,  he  considers  the 
advisability  of  the  operation.  There  is  the  greatest  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  the  merits  of  particular  styles 
and  methods  of  pruning,  and  perhaps  equal  difference  as 


FIG.  23— RESULT  OF  CLOSE   PLANTING    AND   POOR   PRUNING 
These    tree   heads    are    practically    out   of   reach,    hence   spraying    and    thinning    are 
out  of  the  question  and  harvesting  so  costly  as  to  "eat  up  the  profits." 

to  the  effect  of  the  operation  on  the  life  and  health  of  the 
tree.  Perhaps  every  fruit  grower  has  observed  evil  effects 
to  result  fiopm  pruning,  and  many  of  these  observers  have 
reasoned  therefrom  that  pruning  is  itself  injurious,  or  at 

*  This  chapter,  except  the  parts  in  brackets,  is  the  somewhat  condensed  answer 
\vh:ch  1  .  H.  Bailey  gave  the  Peninsular  Horticultural  Society  to  the  question,  "Does 
Pruning  Devitalize  Plants?" 

34 


THE   PHILOSOPHY  OF   PRUNING 


35 


least  hazardous.  I  cannot,  of  course,  uphold  or  explain 
away  the  examples  of  injury  which  follow  pruning.  They 
are  patent  even  to  the  casual  observer,  but  we  must  not 
exalt  individual  instances,  however  numerous,  into  proofs 
of  the  perniciousness  of  pruning. 

There  should  be  at  this  day  sufficient  study  and  experi- 
ence to  enable  us  to  pass  upon  the  merits  of  the  practice 
as  a  whole.  It  is  urgent,  also,  that  the  subject  be  dis- 
cussed, for  however  much  of  correct  teaching  may  be 


FIG.    24— HOW    NOT    TO    MANAGE    TREES 

Trees  neglected  and  vivisected  like  these  cannot  be  made  to  pay  either  as  invest- 
ments or  as  objects  of  beauty. 

promulgated,  there  is  a  constantly  recurring  wave  of 
error  and  prejudice.  For  myself,  I  am  convinced  that 
pruning,  even  when  somewhat  heroic,  is  not  a  devitalizing 
practice.  In  support  of  this  conviction  I  shall  present 
arguments  from  three  sources — philosophy,  plant  physi- 


36  PRIXC  IIM.KS    AND    PRACTICE    <>K    PRUNING 

ology  and  common  experience.  I  do  not  purpose  to  dis- 
cuss mechanical  injuries  to  the  trees,  as  a  result  of  wounds, 
for  we  all  know  that  such  injuries  are  a  result  of  careless 
or  injudicious  pruning".  My  proposition  is  this:  Does  it 
injure  a  plant  to  remove  a  part  of  it?  Is  the  entire  growth 
necessary  to  a  plant's  health  and  longevity? 

39.  The  argument  from  philosophy. — There  is  an  in- 
tense struggle  for  existence  among  all  organisms.  The 
world  is  now  full,  and  there  can  probably  be  no  perma- 
nent increase  in  the  sum  total  of  animals  and  plants.  If 
one  species  increases,  another  must  decrease.  Changes 
in  the  numbers  of  individuals  are,  therefore,  largely  mat- 
ters of  readjustment  between  different  types.  Each  kind 
is  held  down  to  a  certain  equilibrium  in  relation  to  other 
kinds.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  any  species  of  animal  or 
plant  could  completely  occupy  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
if  it  could  multiply  to  the  full  extent  of  its  powers.  Not 
only  do  some  species  compete  with  others,  but  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  species  compete  with  each  other  for 
standing  room.  The  greater  the  number  of  thistles  in  a 
given  field,  the  less  is  the  opportunity  for  another  thistle 
plant  to  gain  a  foothold. 

Now,  a  tree  is  essentially  a  collection  or  colony  of  in- 
dividual plants.  Every  branch,  even  every  joint  of  the 
branch,  is  endeavoring  to  do  what  every  other  branch 
does — to  bear  leaves,  flowers  and  seeds.  Every  branch 
competes  with  every  other  branch ;  and  there  are  more 
germs  of  branches— that  is,  more  buds — than  there  can 
be  branches  upon  any  tree.  So  it  comes  that  no  two 
branches  of  a  tree  are  exactly  alike,  but  arc  what  their 
position  or  condition  makes  them  to  be.  Some  are  strong 
and  some  are  weak.  That  is,  there  is  no  definite  or  proper 
size  or  shape  for  any  branch,  as  there  is  for  the  various 
parts  of  an  animal  or  a  flower.  The  limbs  and  organs  of 
an  animal  arc  not  competitors  but  co-partners,  each  per- 
forming some  function  or  office  which  another  does  not, 


THE   PHILOSOPHY  OF   PRUNING 


37 


and  they  all  obtain  a  definite  maturity  of  size  and  shape. 
But  a  branch  never  attains  its  full  size  until  it  ceases  to 
grow  and  thereby  begins  to  die.  Branches  are  not  or- 
gans, but  competing  individuals. 

If  all  these  statements  are  true,  then  three  conclusions 
follow :  a,  there  is  struggle  for  existence  among  the 
branches  of  a  tree  (Fig-. 
25),  and  some  of  the 
contestants  perish;  b, 
the  destruction  of  these 
•branches  must  conduce 
to  the  betterment  of  the 
remaining  ones;  c,  all 
the  branches  of  a  tree 
are  not  necessary  to  it, 
but  some  of  them  may 
be  a  detriment  to  it.  In 
other  words,  pruning  is 
a  necessity. 

40.  An  instance  from 
nature. — Two  years  ago 
a  wild,  black  cherry 
tree  came  up  near  my 
door.* 

The  first  year,  it  sent 
up  a  single  straight  19- 
inch  shoot,  which  pro- 
duced 27  buds  and  one 
branchlet  8  inches  long. 
This  branchlet  bore  12  buds.  At  the  end  of  the  first  sea- 
son, therefore,  the  little  tree  had  produced  a  total  of  39 
buds,  one  branchlet  and  27  inches  of  growth.  The  second 
year,  19  of  these  39  buds  produced  branches,  and  20  did 
not  start.  These  19  branches  made  a  total  growth  of  231 


FIG.    25 — WHITE     PINE    PI  ANTATION, 

BEFORE   THINNING 

Note    how   branches   have   died   from    lack 
of  light.     Compare  with  Fig.  26. 


*  The  reader  will  find  it  interesting  to  study  some  little  seedling  tree  in  the  way 
the  tree  here  discussed  has  been  studied. 


38 


I'RI.NC  IIM.HS    AND    PRACTICE   OF    FRUNINC, 


inches  and  produced  370  buds.     The  terminal  branch  or 
shoot  grew  36  inches  long. 

Here,  then,  is  a  little  tree  two  years  old  and  4]/2  feet 

high  which  has  made 
an  effort  to  bear  409 
branches.  It  is  plain 
that  more  than  90  per 
cent  of  these  efforts 
must  be  futile.  Many 
of  the  buds  will  not 
start,  but  the  tree 
now  has  a  total  of  27 
branches  and  subdivi- 
sions as  a  result  of  its 
first  year's  growth,  if  it 
makes  a  proportional 
number  this  year  from 
the  growth  [of  last 
year],  it  will  bear  21G 
branches  at  the  close  of 
this  season  and  will 
have  made  a  total  effort 
of  about  3,500  branch- 
germs  or  buds.  This 
little  tree  will  undergo 
a  severe  pruning  in  the 
coming  years,  although 
a  knife  does  not  touch 
it. 

But  the  natural  thin- 
ning of  the  top  will 
continue  in  geometrical 
ratio  as  long  as  the  tree 
grows  ;  and  after  a  time 
this  pruning  will  be- 
come more  severe,  for  larger  branches  will  be  sacrificed. 
Probably  less  than  a  fifth  of  the  buds  upon  any  tree  ever 


FIG.    26— WHITE    PINE    PLANTATION 

AFTER    THINNING 

Compare  with   Fig.  .25.     Note  piles  of  brush 
and  the  trunks  pruned  of  dead  branches 


TIIF  PiIlLOSOPIIY  OF  PRUNING 

branches,      and 


make 

less  than  a  fifth  of  the 
branches  persist.  The 
greater  part  of  these 
branches  die  before 
they  come  to  bearing- 
age,  no  doubt,  but  some 
of  them  perish  after 
they  have  attained  a 
considerable  size.  A 
forest  tree  grows  a  tall, 
straight  bole  because 
the  side  branches  are 
lopped  off  (Fig.  27), 
and  the  more  vigorous 
this  pruning,  the  taller 
and  stronger  the  tree 
becomes. 

Another  black  cherry 
tree,  two  years  old, 
found  in  the  woods, 
bore  buds  at  regular 
intervals  —  about  two 
dozen  of  them.  The 
second  year  the  ter- 
minal bud  sent  out  a 
shoot,  and  13  lateral 
buds  gave  rise  to 
branches.  Of  these  13 
lateral  branches  only 
three  stand  any  chance 
of  living  in  the  dense 
shade  of  the  forest.  In 
fact,  four  or  five  of  the 
lowest  twigs  were  dead 
when  the  [observa- 
tion] was  made;  show- 
ing that  the  struggle 


FIG.  27— SEEDLING  CHESTNUT  103  YEARS 
OLD — Shade  caused  natural  pruning  of 
limbs  for  over  30  feet. 


40  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRTXIXr, 

for  existence  does  not  always  result  from  competition 
among  fellows,  but  may  arise  from  the  crowding  of  other 
plants  (Figs.  18,  25). 

The  three  strong  branches  are  less  than  4  feet  from  the 
ground,  but  other  old  cherry  trees  standing  near  it  have 
no  branch'es  within  15  and  20  feet  of  the  ground.  They, 
no  doubt,  branched  low  down,  as  this  one,  but  the 
branches  eventually  died  in  the  struggle,  and  we,  there- 
fore, have  reason  to  conclude  that  of  all  the  branches  on 
this  little  tree  only  the  terminal  one  can  long  survive. 
One  has  only  to  look  on  the  forest  floor  to  see  how  freely 
trees  shed  their  twigs.  The  trunk  of  a  tree,  then,  is  the 
remainder  in  a  long  problem  of  subtraction. 

So  every  tree  is  a  record  of  defeats  and  disasters  in 
order  that  the  stronger  parts  may  live.  It  is  safe  to  con- 
clude that  if  nature  is  such  a  searching  and  undogmatic 
pruner,  man  may  prune,  too.  Those  persons  who  declaim 
that  pruning  is  unnatural  should  be  taken  into  a  neglected 
orchard  and  be  made  to  see  what  has  transpired  in  the 
tree  tops. 

41.  Is  artificial  pruning  excessive? — I  may  be  met  here 
with  the   criticism   that   artificial   pruning  is   excessive  : 
but  I  answer  that  it  is  not  different  in  kind  from  natural 
pruning,  and  that  it  is  fully  warranted  by  the  different 
objects  in  view.    The  ultimate  object  of  nature  is  the  pro- 
duction of  seeds,  and  the  larger  number  of  viable  seeds 
produced  the  better.    Man  covets  the  fleshy  portion  of  the 
fruit,  or  some  other  character  which  is  of  minor  impor- 
tance to  the  plant.     He  must,  therefore,  thin  the  plant 
rigorously — reduce  the  struggle  for  existence — in  order 
that  size  and   quality  may  come   before   number.     He 
simply  deflects  the  energy  into  another  channel ! 

42.  The  argument  from  plant  physiology  is  equally  im- 
portant.   It  is  a  common  assertion  that  cutting  off  a  limb 
is  an  injury  because  it  removes  a  given  amount  of  tissue 
in  the  production  of  which  the  plant  expended  effort ;  that 
is,  that  pruning  exhausts  the  plant.     This  statement  as- 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF   PRUNING  41 

sumes  that  a  plant  has  a  certain  fixed  vitality,  from  which 
a  given  amount  is  withdrawn  whenever  a  portion  of  the 
plant  is  cut  away.  I  might  illustrate  this  by  supposing 
that  a  plant  has  an  initial  vitality  represented  by  the 
number  10 ;  then,  if  one-tenth  of  the  top  is  removed,  there 
is  left  a  vitality  of  9.  But  this  assumption  is  wholly 
gratuitous.  Vitality  is  very  largely  determined  by  the 
conditions  under  which  a  plant  grows — the  character  of 
the  soil  and  treatment.  As  plants  have  no  nerves,  they 
cannot  die  of  shock,  as  we  sometimes  hear  it  said. 

Every  fruit  grower  knows  that  two  trees,  of  the  same 
initial  vigor,  if  given  different  soil  and  care,  may  differ 
widely  from  each  other  in  thrift  and  healthfulness  at  the 
expiration  of  five  years.  If  the  plant  is  very  largely  what 
its  food  supply  and  other  environments  make  it  to  be,  if 
it  is  constantly  renewed  and  augmented,  then  the  removal 
of  a  portion  of  it  cannot  destroy  its  vitality  unless  the  re- 
moval is  so  great  as  to  interfere  with  the  nutrition  of  the 
remaining  parts.  It  may  be  replied  that  the  tissue,  the 
wood,  which  is  removed  in  large  limbs,  might  have  been 
saved  to  the  tree  by  directing  it  into  other  parts  of  the 
top  by  means  of  earlier  pruning.  This  may  be  true ;  but 
this  saving  would  have  resulted  only  in  an  economy  of 
time  by  building  up  the  other  parts  earlier  in  the  lifetime 
of  the  tree,  and  not  in  an  economy  of  vitality,  for  vitality 
is  constantly  renewed. 

43.  Early  pruning  as  a  life  saver. — It  may  be  a  question 
if  we  really  save  a  proportionate  amount  of  time  by  early 
pruning ;  that  is,  whether  we  can  direct  the  same  amount 
of  growth  into  the  remaining  portions  of  the  plant  by 
pruning  very  early  in  its  lifetime,  as  we  can  by  pruning 
when  the  superfluous  branches-  have  attained  som-e  size 
arid  have,  perhaps,  begun  to  bear.  There  is  an  exact 
balance  between  the  root-system  and  the  superficial 
growth  of  the  plant.  The  more  active  and  efficient  the 
root,  the  larger  the  top.  If  we  remove  a  large  portion  of 


42 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OK    PRUNING 


this  top,  there  is  an  endeavor  to  supply  the  deficiency  by 
an  exceedingly  rapid  growth.  So  pruned  plants  are 
nearly  always  more  vigorous  than  unpruned  ones,  be- 
cause of  the  concentration  of  a  somewhat  constant  food 
supply  into  a  smaller  number  of  branches.  Therefore, 
pruning  must  have  much  the  same  effect  as  manuring. 

The  stimulating  effect  of  this  new  growth,  or  new  dis- 
position of  energy,  must  be  felt  upon  the  root  system 

also;  and  it  is  a  point 
for  discussion  as  to 
whether  this  stimulus 
and  response  to  new 
conditions  may  not  be 
greater  when  the  prun- 
ing is  somewhat  heroic 
than  when  it  is  so 
evenly  distributed  over 
the  lifetime  of  the  tree 
as  to  be  imperceptible. 
Growth  is  certainly 
more  emphatic  follow- 
ing a  heroic  pruning. 
_  but  its  total  may  not  be 

^  greater  than  that  which 

follows  several  prun- 
ings  of  equal  aggregate 
severity. 

My  own  observation 
and  experience  lead  me 
to  believe  that  annual 
pruning  of  all  fruit 
trees  is  desirable,  but  T 

am  equally  convinced  that  to  cut  out  all  the  superfluous 
twigs  at  each  pruning  does  not  pay,  either  in  cost  of 
pruning  or  in  good  to  the  tree.  These  superfluous  twigs 
may  often  be  left  with  advantage  until  they  are  two  or 
three  or  even  four  years  old.  Although  stimulating 


FIG.    28— HOW    BRANCHES    ARE    BURIED 

1,  Dead  twig  healed  in;  2,  twig  dead  at 
tip  being  healed  in;  3,  twig  with  decayed 
pith  being  healed  in;  4,  dead  twig  completely 
healed  in;  5,  two  branches  healed  in,  one 
pointing  left,  vigorous  when  cut,  one  pointing 
up  dead  part  way  out;  6,  "eyes"  where  oblique 
limbs  started  from  main  trunk. 


THE   PHILOSOPHY  OF   PRUNING  43 

effects  may  result  from  the  considerable  unbalance  of  the 
plant  when  many  branches  are  removed,  these  super- 
fluous and  unpruned  twigs  often  afford  a  very  useful 
shelter  or  sun-screen  to  the  inner  parts  of  the  top,  and 
they  lessen  the  danger  of  over-pruning,  by  which  the 
nutrition  of  the  tree  may  be  injured. 

I  have  said  that  pruning  increases  vigor.  Two  trees  of 
Siberian  Crab  were  set  25  feet  apart  near  my  house  in  the 
spring.  These  trees  are  as  near  alike  as  any  two  apple 
trees  I  have  ever  seen.  I  measured  the  growth  on  one 
of  these  trees  and  found  it  to  have  been  745  inches.  The 
tree  was  then  thoroughly  pruned  and  460  inches  of  wood 
removed.  Of  this,  432  inches  was  new  wood.  The  total 
weight  of  this  wood  was  7^  ounces. 

The  other  tree  was  not  pruned.  During  the  third  sea- 
son the  unpruned  tree  produced  118  new  twigs,  with  a 
total  length  of  1,758  inches,  while  the  pruned  tree  pro- 
duced 120  new  twigs  and  made  a  total  growth  of  1,926 
inches.  The  pruned  tree,  therefore,  made  14  feet  more 
growth  than  the  other  and  stouter  growth  also,  a  large 
proportion  for  a  tree  only  three  years  set.  In  other  words, 
a  tree  from  which  about  40  feet  of  branches  had  been  cut 
bore  at  the  end  of  a  single  season  14  feet  more  wood  than 
a  similar  tree  which  had  not  been  pruned.  Aside  from 
the  greater  growth  which  this  pruning  induced,  the  ex- 
periment shows — in  common  with  all  similar  ones — that 
it  is  impossible  to  injure  trees  by  what  is  called  a  shock. 

It  is  often  said  that  the  time  of  the  year  when  pruning 
is  performed  influences  the  amount  of  growth  [and]  that 
pruning  in  winter  makes -wood  and  pruning  in  summer 
makes  fruit  (83,  95,  97,  107,  108,  109).  Certainly  winter 
pruning  makes  more  wood  than  summer  pruning  does 
in  the  current  year,  because  the  season's  growth  is  nearly 
or  quite  completed  when  the  summer  pruning  is  per- 
formed. 

44.  Why  pruning  is  not  injurious, — I  have  said  that 


44  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

pruning,  of  itself,  cannot  be  injurious  so  long  as  it  does 
not  interfere  with  the  nutrition  of  the  plant.  It  is  im- 
portant, therefore,  that  I  explain  how  this  interference 
•occurs.  A  (plant  derives  a  certain  portion  of  its  food  from 
the  soil  in  the  shape  of  soluble  inorganic  materials 
(Chapter  II). 

These  materials  ascend  to  the  leaves  through  the  young 
wood  and  become  associated  with  organized  compounds 
like  starch  and  sugar.  These  organized  compounds  are 
used  in  the  repair  and  growth  of  all  parts  of  the  plant 
and  they  are,  therefore,  distributed  to  the  leaves,  twigs, 
trunk  and  roots.  The  growth  of  the  roots  is,  therefore, 
largely  determined  by  the  amount  and  vigor  of  the  top 
or  leaf-bearing  portion.  [Hence]  the  removal  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  top  may  interfere  with  the  vigor  of 
the  plant  by  preventing  the  supply  of  a  sufficient  amount 
of  elaborated  food. 

This  difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  in  the  girdling 
or  ringing  (100)  of  grapevines,  which  prevents  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  elaborated  plant  foods  to  the  roots.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  the  grape  is  pruned  the 
most  severely  of  all  fruits,  and  it  is,  therefore,  easy  to 
overstep  the  danger  line ;  and  yet  it  is  strange  that  while 
certain  writers  disparage  the  pruning  of  trees,  they  do 
not  object  to  the  common  pruning  of  the  vine.  In  fruit 
trees  the  instances  of  injurious  interference  with  nutri- 
tion by  pruning  are  rare ;  they  need  not  be  further  con- 
sidered here.  This  is  proved  by  the  good  results  which 
so  often  follow  the  heroic  treatment  of  top-grafted  trees. 

45.  Removal  of  large  branches  bad  practice. — But  if 
pruning  is  not  devitalizing,  if  the  removal  of  strong 
branches  induces  more  vigorous  growth  in  the  remaining 
ones,  and  if  there  is  little  danger  of  disturbing  the  nutri- 
tion of  the  tree,  it  must  follow  that  there  can  be  no  ob- 
jection to  the  removal  of  large  branches.  I  cannot  agree 
to  this  inference,  although  I  am  willing  to  say  that  the 


B 


FIG.  29— APPLE  TWIGS   OF  VARIOUS    AGES 

A,  water  sprout,  one  season  old,  numerous  branch  buds.  B,  shoot  from  a  fruit 
spur  bearing  new  fruit  spurs  toward  its  upper  end.  Each  of  these  spurs  has 
attempted  to  produce  fruits,  but  the  apples  have  almost  all  failed  to  mature. 
C,  eight-year-old  twig  whose  fruit  spurs  have  made  31  attempts  to  bear,  but  have 
succeeded  in  maturing  fruits  only  five  times,  most  of  the  specimens  falling  before 
half  grown.  D,  three-year-old  shoot  with  vigorous  fruit  spurs.  E,  similar  shoot 
with  ono  fruit  spur  which  "changed  its  mind"  and  became  a  branch. 


46  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OI     1'. 

removal  of  such  branches  may  not  be  objectionable  -«• 
far  as  the  direct  injury  or  shock  to  the  vitality  of  the  tree 
is  concerned.  But  there  are  important  reasons  why  large 
branches  should  not  be  removed. 

Such  pruning  exposes  dangerous  wounds ;  it  is  apt  to 
open  the  tree  so  much  that  some  of  the  remaining  parts 
scald  and  borers  obtain  a  foothold ;  it  may  spoil  the  sym- 
metry or  convenience  of  the  tree,  and  such  branches  may 
represent  a  certain  amount  of  energy  which  should 
have  been  earlier  directed  elsewhere.  Aside  from 
all  this,  the  cutting  away  of  very  large  branches  often  in- 
dicates a  lack  of  enterprise  and  forethought  on  the  part 
of  the  grower,  and  suggests  the  feeling  that  he  may  be 
remiss  in  all  his  operations.  But  while  I  discourage  the 
removal  of  branches  3  and  4  inches  in  diameter,  it  is  not 
because  I  consider  such  practice  a  devitalizing  one.  I 
should  much  prefer  the  removal  of  such  large  branches 
to  total  neglect.  I  have  myself  removed  many  such 
branches  10  and  15  years  ago  from  apple  trees  which  are 
today  in  most  perfect  health  and  vigor. 

46.  Experience  the  best  teacher.— If  philosophy  and 
physiology  show  that  pruning  is  not  a  devitalizing 
process,  common  experience  affords  still  stronger  proof. 
One  of  the  commonest  absurdities  in  our  horticultural 
literature  is  the  admonition  to  prune  only  with  a  knife, 
thereby  avoiding  the  cutting  of  large  limbs.  Not  an  or- 
chardist  in  the  country  practices  this  advice  if  he  prunes 
thoroughly !  If  scientific  teaching  and  permanently  suc- 
cessful practice  are  opposed,  then  the  teaching  is  wrong. 
[Certainly]  some  of  our  accepted  teaching  on  pruning 
will  not  stand  the  test  of  time.  I  have  frequently  observed 
that  well-pruned  trees  live  as  long  as  those  unpruned, 
and  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  they  may  live  longer. 
They  [surely]  produce  more  [and  better  fruit]  during 
their  lifetime. 

But  suppose  that  pruning  is  a  devitalizing  process — 


THE  PHUJOSOPHY  OF  PRUNING  47 

what  then?  Even  then  we  could  not  afford  to  discontinue 
it.  The  gains  in  size  and  quality  of  fruit,  in  ease  of  culti- 
vation and  spraying  of  the  plants,  are  advantages  which 
progressive  horticulture  can  never  forego.  Advise  a 
grape-grower  to  discontinue  pruning ! 

47.  Summary. — It  appears  to  be  safe  to  conclude,  from 
the  foregoing  considerations,  that  pruning  is  a  legitimate 
practice,  finding  warrant  in  wild  plants,  in  physiology 
and  in  the  experience  of  centuries.  It  is  not  of  itself,  as 
ordinarily  performed,  a  devitalizing  practice,  while  its 
advantages  are  several  and  important.  There  is  abundant 
opportunity  for  improvement  in  methods,  and  every  plant 
needs  a  particular  treatment,  and  perhaps  some  .species 
or  varieties  demand  little,  if  any,  thinning;  but,  as  a 
whole,  pruning  is  indispensable  to  successful  horticulture. 


CHAPTER  IV 
BUDS 

48.  A  bud  is  a  rudimentary  plant  part  which  upon  de- 
velopment produces  (1)  a  leaf  or  a  cluster  of  leaves,  (2)  a 
stem,  (3)  a  flower  or  a  cluster  of  flowers,  or  (4)  a  cluster 
of  leaves  and  flowers  together.  The  first  of  these  are 
called  leaf  buds,  the  second  wood  or  branch  buds,  the 
third  flower  buds  and  the  fourth  mixed  or  cluster  buds. 


FIG.  30*— DEHORNING  WITH   A  VENGEANCE 
Instead  of  healing  over,  the  stubs  have  decayed.     Such  a   tree  is  a  wreck. 

*  There's  a  joke  in  the  tower  seen  in  the  background.  The  negative  had 
been  injured  at  this  point,  so  the  engraver  built  a  new  tower  of  a  style  with  which 
he  is  presumably  familiar  because  of  his  lodge  affiliation  !  The  actual  architecture 
of  this  tower  is  seen  in  Fig.  94. 

48 


BUDS 


49 


49.  Leaf  buds  may  be  produced  anywhere  on  stems  not 
too  old  to  perform  this  function,  but  leaves  are  mostly 
developed  at  the  nodes  in  spring  and  early  summer  upon 
shoots  newly  expanding  from  terminal  and  lateral  buds. 

50.  A  wood  or  branch  bud  is  an  undeveloped  branch 
inclosed  in  modified  leaves  or  bud  scales  which  protect  a 
rudimentary  axis  and  leaves  that  under  favorable  condi- 
tions of  growth  expand  into  branches  bearing  leaves  and 
perhaps  flowers  also. 

51.  A  flower  bud  is  an  unexpanded  flower  protected  or 
not  by  bud  scales. 

52.  A  mixed  or  cluster  bud  is  often  termed  merely  a 
flower  bud,  as  in  the  case  of  apple  and  pear;  but  since, 
upon  expansion,  it  develops  both  leaves  and  flowers,  it 
is  more  definite  to  use  the  correct  term. 

53.  Other  names  for  buds. — For  convenience,  various 
terms  are  used  to  describe  still  more  definitely  all  of  the 


FIG.    31— NEW   GROWTH    ON    "DEHORNED"    PEACH    TREE 
Some  of  the  cuts — for  instance,  the  one  in  the  center — should  have  been  re-cut 
to  favor  healing  over.     Notice  the  sturdy  new  growths  from  the  old  branches.     The 
tree  was  full  of  good  fruit  when  the  photo  was  taken. 


50  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

above  classes.  As  to  position,  buds  are  (a)  lateral  or 
axillary;  that  is,  produced  in  the  leaf  axils,  or  (b)  termi- 
nal ;  that  is,  borne  at  the  extremities  of  shoots.  Buds 
may  also  be  dormant  or  latent. 

54.  Dormant  or  resting  buds  are  developed  during  the 
growing  season,  but  remain  quiescent  during  the  winter 
or  the  dry  season  which  follows.    If  they  continue  to  rest 
longer  than  this,  though  still  technically  -'resting  buds," 
they  are  usually  termed  latent. 

55.  Latent  buds  require  a  more  vigorous  stimulus  than 
do  dormant  buds  to  force  them  into  growth.  They  are  com- 
monly located   upon   the   lower  portions  of  shoots  and 
branches,  and  simply  because  of  their  unfavorable  posi- 
tion do  not  as  often  expand  under  normal  growth  stimuli 
as  do  buds  farther  up  on  the  stems.    The  peach,  especially 
a  young  tree,  furnishes  an  excellent  illustration,  because 
usually  only  the  terminal  and  a  few  of  the  upper  buds  on 
"last  year's"  growth  normally  develop  into  twigs  "this 
year."     However,  if  the  last  year's  growth  be  cut  back, 
twigs  will   develop  from  buds  which  would   otherwise 
remain  latent. 

Generally  the  terminal  bud  and  those  near  it  are  the 
first  to  expand  into  twigs,  and  generally,  also,  the  strength 
of  these  twigs  is,  according  to  their  relative  position,  the 
strongest  from  the  terminal  bud  the  next  strong  from  the 
nearest  lateral  bud,  the  weakest  from  the  lowest  lateral 
that  expands.  There  usually  remain  several  to  many 
lateral  buds  which  continue  latent. 

For  experiment,  let  the  branch  be  cut  off  just  below 
the  lowest  bud  that  has  developed  a  twig.  In  due  time 
the  highest  latent  bud  will  assume  more  or  less  satis- 
factorily the  duties  of  a  terminal  bud  and  adjacent  buds 
will  develop  lateral  twigs  (Fig.  66).  If  the  original 
branch  is  long  enough,  this  experiment  may  be  repeated  as 
long  as  any  latent  buds  remain.  Whether  the  experiment 
be  performed  on  "last  year's"  wood  or  wood  several  years 


BUDS 


51 


older  is  immaterial ;  the  buds  if  still  living  may  awake 
from  their  latency  and  produce  twigs.  Very  important 
use  is  made  of  this  principle  in  transplanting  nursery 
trees  and  in  dehorning  (Fig.  31),  though  it  must  be  said 
that  in  the  latter  practice  the  buds  which  expand  are 
mostly 

55a.  Adventitious  buds. — When  buds  are  produced  at 
unexpected  points  on  roots,  stems  or  leaves,  they  are  said 
to  be  adventitious,  because  they  are  not  in  normal  posi- 
tions. From  the  standpoint  of  the  pruner  they  are  of 
great  importance 
for  two  reasons; 
namely,  (1)  they 
may  develop  suck- 
ers from  the  roots 
or  water  sprouts 
( Fig.  32)  fro  m 
the  trunks  and 
branches,  and  it 
may  be  necessary 
to  destroy  these  ad- 
ventitious, undesir- 
able growths.  The 
suckers  in  plants 
that  have  been 
grafted  or  budded 
are  almost  inva- 
riably undesirable,  because  the  stock  is  of  a  different  char- 
acter from  that  of  the  cion  or  top. 

In  some  cases  the  stock,  being  often  of  more  vigorous 
habit  than  the  cion,  would  grow  so  rapidly  that  the  cion 
might  be  starved  to  death,  as  often  happens  with  grafted 
and  budded  roses  that  are  neglected  in  this  particular. 
(2)  Conversely,  adventitious  buds  are  important  because 
they  may  be  relied  upon  to  produce  new  growths.  The 
most  important  applications  of  this  development  are  (a) 


FIG.  32— NOTHING  WRONG  WITH  THE  ROOTS 
Trees  which  show  such  vigorous  growths  of 
suckers  and  water  sprouts  always  have  sturdy, 
abundant  and  healthy  roots.  The  trouble  is  in 
the  top. 


52  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

in  plant  propagation,  where  the  adventitious  buds  pro- 
duce roots  on  layers,  cuttings,  etc.,  and  (b)  in  pruning 
and  "dehorning,"  where  they,  as  well  as  latent  buds,  are 
relied  upon  to  produce  new  shoots,  some  of  which  may 
be  favorably  enough  placed  to  develop  new  branches  or 
even  whole  heads. 

56.  Where  blossom  buds  are  borne. — In  order  to  prune 
intelligently  for  the  production  of  flowers  and  fruit,  it  is 
essential  that  the  pruner  know  where  blossom  buds  are 
normally  borne.  While  the  positions  of  these  buds  na- 
turally vary  among  the  varieties  of  any  species  with  the 
vigor  and  the  age  of  the  plant,  with  environment  and 
other  factors,  yet  each  species  has  its  own  characteristic 
method  of  blossom  or  fruit  bearing.  In  general,  species 
and  their  varieties  may  be  grouped  in  two  general  classes 
each  with  its  subdivisions.  These  are  characterized  thus : 

A.    BLOSSOM  OR  CLUSTER  BUDS  EASILY  SEEN  DURING  WINTER 

on  "last  season's"  twigs:  1,  A.villary:  Peach  (Fig.  46), 
hazel,  filbert  (almost  always),  almond,  currant  (Fig.  49), 
gooseberry  (mainly,  Fig.  50),  apricot  and  Japanese  plum 
(partly,  Fig.  48),  apple  and  pear  (sometimes).  2,  Terminal, 
mainly  on  spurs.  Apple,  pear  (almost  always,  Figs.  35,  36), 
cherry  (Figs.  41,  42,  43,  44,  45),  plum  (Figs.  39,  40)  and 
apricot  (mainly),  almond  and  currant  (partly).  B.  BLO- 
BUDS  NOT  VISIBLE  DURING  WINTER  because  borne  on  "this  sea- 
son's" twigs:  1,  axillary  on  canes  or  strong  shoots:  Grape 
(Figs.  51,  57),  mulberry,  persimmon,  olive,  chestnut,  fig 
( Fig.  33 )  ;  2,  a,  terminal  on  terminal  shoots :  Loquat ;  b, 
terminal,  or  nearly  so,  on  lateral  shoots  developed  during 
summer:  Orange  and  the  bramble  fruits  (raspberry,  Figs. 
55,  56,  blackberry,  Fig.  54,  dewberry)  ;  3,  co-terminal, 
that  is  on  the  ends  of  short  shoots  developed  from  buds 
formed  "last  season"  and  wintered  over.  Quince  (Fig 
58),  medlar,  hickory,  and  walnut. 

From  the  above  outline  it  is  obvious  that  in  pruning 
for  flower  and  fruit  production  the  operator,  while  not 


BUDS 


53 


losing  sight  of  the  effects  his  work  may  have  upon  the 
general  growth  of  the  tree  or  shrub  as  to  form  and  de- 
velopment, must  consider  the  way  in  which  blossom  buds 
are  produced  so  he  can  intelligently  regulate  the  number 
and  development  of  the  buds,  twigs  and  branches  which 
rare  to  bear  these  flowers 
and  fruits.  The  following 
paragraphs  will,  therefore, 
help  the  uninstructed 
reader  to  determine  how  to 
make  decisions  so  far  as 
buds  are  concerned. 

57.  Age  of  shoot  deter- 
mined by  bud  scars. — In 
pruning  practice  it  is  often 
necessary  to  know  the  age 
of  branches  and  twigs.  Ex- 
cept where  secondary 
growth  has  taken  place  this 
can  easily  be  determined 
until  the  branches  become 
too  old  to  reveal  the  dis- 
tinguishing marks,  rings 
and  a  bulge.  These  may 
not,  however,  be  as  marked 
in  this  case  as  in  normal 
cases.  When  the  terminal 
is  a  fruit  bud  the  branch 
usually  kills  back  to  the 
first  sturdy  lateral  twig, 
which  then  assumes  the 
duties  of  leadership.  Very 
marked  cases  of  thickening  occur  with  some  varieties  of 
apple  and  pear  fruit  spurs  which  are  often  three  times 
the  diameter  of  the  twigs  below  the  swellings.  The 
scars  were  left  by  the  bud  scales  which  fell  off  when  the 
terminal  bud  pushed  into  growth.  When  the  terminals 


FIG.    33— FRUITING    HABIT    OF    FIG 

Fruits      axillary      on       "this      season's" 

growths. 


54  PRLXC  II'LKS    AM)    1'kACTKK    OK    PRUNING 

are  wood  buds  the  direction  of  growth  is  practically 
straight,  but  when  they  are  blossom  buds  or  when  the 
terminal  wood  bud  or  shoot  is  destroyed  accidentally  or 
purposely,  an  axillary  bud  will  develop  a  shoot  which  will 
depart  more  or  less  from  the  straight  line.  (Fig.  67.) 
This  is  especially  characteristic  of  apple  and  pear  spurs, 
which  in  many  varieties  become  greatly  contorted. 

58.  Fruit  spurs  and  buds. — An  examination  of  twigs 
two  seasons  old  of,  say,  apple  and  gooseberry,  will  show 
how  axillary  buds  often  develop,  1,  into  twigs  as  already 
noted  (50)  and,  2,  into  tiny  spurs  terminated  by  blossom 
or  cluster  buds  (Fig.  29).     Often  these  latter  are  so  short 
as  to  be  mistaken  for  true  buds  instead  of  bud-terminated 
spurs.    When  these  buds  swell,  they  may  develop  several 
to  many  leaves  or  flowers  or  both.     When  they  do  not 
produce  flowers,  a  terminal  bud  may  be  formed  during 
"this  season"  for  the  extension  of  the  twig  "next  season"  ; 
and   when   flowers   develop   into   one   or   more   fruits,   a 
branch  bud  may  be  formed  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf  to  extend 
the  twig  more  or  less  laterally  "next  season."     In  this 
last  case  the  twig  may  grow  for  several  seasons  in  the  di- 
rection thus  taken;  that  is,  until  it  develops  a  terminal 
cluster  bud  and  thus  makes  a  change  of  direction  nec- 
essary. 

59.  Meaning    of   scars    on    fruit    spurs. — When    fruit 
reaches  maturity  it  leaves  a  scar  at  the  point  of  its  attach- 
ment to  the  fruit  spur  or  twig.  It  is  often  said  that  such 
scars  indicate  the  number  of  fruits  borne  by  the  spurs, 
but  this  is  not  always  true,   because   frequently   short 
twigs,  which  at  some  previous  time  bore  flowers,  may 
kill  back  to  the  main  fruit  spur,  and  when  they  fall  off 
leave  scars  like  those  left  by  fruits  that  matured.     The 
only  way  to  be  sure  is  to  note  whether  or  not  the  scars 
are  solitary  or  in   clusters.     Where  solitary   they  have 
probably  been   formed  by  twigs ;  where  in  clusters,  by 
flowers  or  more  or  less  mature  fruits  surrounding  the 
5car  of  a  fruit  that  reached  maturity. 


«,  .c  «  J-  •  -  "'  T3  at  ^  «\j        '  M  ,,;  .   «i      re  tx^->^c      &  m      •&&      a* 


56 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE  OF    PRUNING 


60.  Slow  growth  favors  fruitfulness. — Since  lack  of 
light  due  to  disadvantageous  position  tends  to  reduce  food 
supply  and  consequently  size  of  twigs,  many  twigs  so 
deprived  develop  into  fruit  spurs.  Hence  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  slow  growth  favors  fruitfulness.  Generally 
when  twigs  have  developed  the  fruit-bearing  habit  they 
continue  in  this  habit.  Thus  at,  say,  20  years  of  age,  they 
may  be  only  a  few  inches  long  though  they  may  have 
produced  a  considerable  number  of  fruits.  It  does  not 


FIG.  35— FRUITING   SPURS  OF   APPLE 

The  left-hand  specimen  has  evidently  home  a  fruit.  A  cluster  bud  has  de- 
veloped on  the  stub  and  a  branch  or  spur  bud  is  swelling  below.  A  similar  case 
is  in  the  middle,  but  two  cluster  buds  have  been  formed.  The  right-hand  specimen 
shows  the  mummy  of  an  apple  that  failed  to  mature  beside  the  branch  bud  of 
which  a  new  branch  bud  has  formed.  The  other  spurs  also  on  this  twig  show  normal 
growth,  the  spurs  being  two  years  old. 

ft 

follow  that  the  habit  cannot  be  broken  or  that  advantage 
cannot  be  taken  of  it,  as  in  invigorating  old  fruit  spurs. 
(Fig.  150.)  Injudicious  pruning  is  one  of  the  surest  ways 
of  destroying  the  fruit-bearing  habit;  and  this,  too,  with- 
out the  removal  of  any  of  the  spurs.  (Fig.  171.)  Heavy 
pruning,  especially  during  the  winter  of  a  season  when 
the  crop  is  light,  will  force  many  strong  growths  from  the 
fruit  spurs  as  well  as  from  other  parts  of  the  tree,  so  that, 


BUDS 


57 


as  many  an  orchardist  will  shamefacedly  admit,  there 
will  be  little  or  no  fruit  for  one  to  several  years. 

61.  Pome  fruit  bud  positions  vary. — Most  commonly 
apples  and  pears  bear  their  cluster  buds  terminally  on 
gnarly  little  twigs 
called  fruit  spurs 
(Fig.  34).  When 
these  buds  expand, 
they  show  perhaps 
half  a  dozen  to  a 
dozen  leaves  sur- 
rounding maybe  as 
many  flowers.  Usu- 
ally not  more  than 
one,  or  possibly 
two,  of  these  blos- 
soms develops  into 
a  mature  fruit  (Fig. 
35).  The  others 
drop  off.  The  fruit- 
ripening  process  is 
apparently  an  ex- 
haustive one,  for 
the  spur  which  ma- 
tures a  fruit  "this 
season"  will  usually 
not  develop  one 
"next  year."  While 
the  fruit  is  ripen- 
ing, a  branch  bud  is 
developing  near  the 
fruit-stem  attach- 
ment to  the  spur. 
This  branch  bud 
swells  the  following  season  into  a  short  growth  termi- 
nated by  a  cluster  bud.  Thus  fruit  spurs  theoretically 


FIG.  36— BLOOMING  TWIG  OF  APPLE 
Variations  such  as  these  are  not  uncommon.  Note 
that  the  cluster  buds  are  mainly  on  short  spurs 
(below)  ;  that  in  the  center  a  fruit  has  evidently 
been  borne  and  other  fruit  spurs  have  developed 
from  the  sides  of  this  spur;  also  that  one  of  the 
buds  has  developed  a  short  branch  with  a  terminal 
cluster  bud. 


58 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRl'NINC, 


bear  each  alternate  year  and 
continue  for  many  years  to 
make  their  gnarly  growth.  Such 
being  the  case,  great  care  rru-n 
usually  be  exercised  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  fruit  spurs:  for  if 
they  are  destroyed  they  cannot 
be  replaced.  The  only  way 
new  ones  can  he  secured  is  to 
develop  water  sprouts,  upon 
which,  after  much  loss  of  time, 
new  spurs  will  form. 

Apple  and  pear  cluster  laid-. 
though     usually     terminal 
shown  in  the  outline  (56).  ;ri 
not   always   so.     Though    fruit 
spurs  are  usually   two 
old  before  mature  fruits  cm  be 
gathered   from   them,  this   rub 
has     its     exceptions.       Ind 
some     varieties     produce     c< 
siderable    fruit   on   the    ti;><    of 
"last    season's"     twigs    or    D'1 
spurs    of    the    same    a<^    (  Fii-'. 
36).     Certain  varieties  of  apples 
produce    blossom    buds    in    th  • 
axils  of  leaves  of  "last  season" 
and   mature   their   fruif<    "this 
season."     Such   cases   as   these 
appear     to     be     verv     ex- 
ceptional in  the  eastern  Unil 
States,  but  comparatively  com- 
mon in  the  West,  especially  in 
sections     where     irrigation     i> 
practiced.    The  practical   value 
of  this  fact  is  that  those  varieties  which   produce  blos- 
som    buds   on   growths    only   one    season    old    tend    to 


FIG.  37— PEACH  SPUR 
This  twig  grew  on  the  interior 
of  the  tree.  Notice  1,  the  large 
number  of  blossoms;  2,  the  small 
number  of  branch  buds;  and  3, 
that  in  several  cases  (clearly  seen 
at  a)  branch  buds  have  been  re- 
placed by  flowers. 


BUDS 


59 


be  more  regular  annual  bearers  or  fruit  than  do  those 
varieties  which  produce  fruit  buds  only  on  older  growth. 
Annual  bearing,  it  must  be  stated,  however,  is  i  habit 
which  is  dependent  not  upon  thi<  one  factor  alone,  but 
upon  other  factors.  For  instance,  certain  spurs  may  bear 
fruit  one  year,  while  others  are  fruitless.  The  foUowj^e 
season  the  fruitless  spurs  may 
bear  the  crop,  while  the  pre- 
viously fruitful  ones  may  ;ake 
a  rest.  Fruit  spurs  MAY  pro- 
duce fruit  each  alternate  year, 
but  this  is  not  nearly  as  regular 
a  habit  as  it  is  popularly  be- 
lieved to  be. 

62.  Pit  fruit  bud  positions. — 
While  the  outline  (56)  shows 
the  general  ways  in  which  pit 
fruit  buds  are  borne,  yet  the 
/ariations  due  to  variety,  en- 
vironment and  other  causes  de- 
serve a  special  paragraph. 

Stone  fruit  blossom  buds  are 
unlike  those  of  apple  and  pear 
in  being  simple ;  that  is,  they 
are  not  clustered  with  leaves, 
though  plum  and  cherry  buds 
often  contain  a  few  little  leaves 
that  usually  drop  off  before  .the 
fruit  ripens.  Sometimes  peach 
and  apricot  buds  contain  two  bu,s.  4>  that  the  lowest  bran  h 

flowers,  though    One    is   the   nor-       buds    are    not    swelling    while    tha 
,  x-,.  ,     •  «          upper  ones  are. 

mal     number.       Cherry     buds 

usually  reveal  two  flower  buds,  though  the  number  may 
vary  from  one  to  five.  The  same  is  true  of  plums,  excep^ 
that  two  or  three  are  the  usual  numbers. 

The   peach   bears    its   blossom    buds   singly   beside    i 
branch  bud  or  in  pairs  with  a  branch  b  id  between,  except 


1 


FI3.   3:<— 


'.    GROWTH   OF 
•PEACH 

The  three  pieces  constitute  on:; 
branch  of  "lart"  season's  growth. 
Note,  1,  positions  o1'  t!  e  bloom  - 
near  the  middle  of  tlu  branch;  2. 
that  normally  a  branch  bud  li?s 
between  two  blx:m  bu  !s  and  els  > 
at  the  *erminal;  3  that  bloom  ex- 
tends nearly  ?o  fh:  t:o  with  or'y 
short,  bar^  int«rv-ls  above  ard 
b'low  the  main  blooming  area,  ard 
t'  ese  in'trv./s  he?r  're-  n  h  or  !e  f 


60 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


as  noted  two  paragraphs  below.  It  is  believed  by  many 
fruit  growers  that  this  simple  bud  habit  is  one  of  the  rea- 
sons why  peach  buds  are  usually  more  largely  winter- 
killed than  are  the  buds  of  apples  and  pears,  which  are  in 
well-protected  cluster  buds.  In  the  bud  which  contains  no 
leaves  the  flower  parts  usually  have  few  protecting  bud  scales. 
An  examination  will  show  that  the  branch  buds  of  the 
stone  fruits  are  closely  similar  in  structure  and  posi- 
tion to  those  of  the 


pome 


fruits.  Still  there  are 
differences.  For  in- 
stance, apricots  and 
many  plums  seldom  de- 
velop terminal  buds  of 
any  kind,  and  the  axil- 
lary buds  of  these  two 
fruits  and  also  of 
peaches  may  produce 
blossoms  instead  of 
leaves. 

To  illustrate  this 
point  still  further :  Nor- 
mally the  peach  pro- 
duces two  blossom 
buds  with  a  wood  bud 
between  them,  but  often 
even  this  central  wood 
bud  gives  place  to  a 
flower,  so  three  flowers 
are  produced  in  a  group 
(Fig.  37).  When  the 
terminal  bud  fails  to 
form,  the  nearest  axillary  bud,  if  a  branch  bud.  assumes 
the  duties  of  a  terminal  wood  bud  and  the  following  sea- 
son extends  the  branch  in  practically  as  straight  a  line 
as  if  it  were  a  true  terminal. 

When  peach  trees  arc  making  normal  growth  the  blos- 
soms are  more  often  in  couples  than  they  are  solitary. 


FIG.   39— EUROPEAN    PLUM 
Branch      shows      typical      blooming      habit, 
flowers  being  borne  largely   in  pairs  or  singly 
on  last  season's  wood. 


BUDS 


61 


When  the  growth  is  strong  the  blossom  buds  are  nearer 
the  tips  than  the  bases  of  the  twigs,  because  their  posi- 
tions are  largely  determined  by  the  vigor  of  the  trees 
upon  which  they  are  borne.  When  the  growth  is  weak 
the  buds  are  mainly  solitary  and  scattered  from  end  to 
end  of  the  twigs.  When  the  growth  is  moderate  the  buds 
are  mostly  near  the  middles  of  the  twigs.  Young  and  rank- 
growing  trees  show 
them  near  the  twig  tips. 

Jt  is  important  to  re- 
member that  the  blos- 
som-bearing habit  of  the 
peach  tends  to  make 
the  fruit-bearing  area  of 
the  tree  move  each  sea- 
son farther  from  the 
center  of  the  tree  (Fig. 
46),  instead  of  continu- 
ing, as  in  the  apple  and 
the  pear,  in  a  prac- 
tically set  area.  The 
pruner  must,  therefore, 
maintain  a  supply  of 
bearing  wood  on  the 
branches,  which  he 
must  not  allow  to  ex- 
tend too  far.  The  wiry 
interior  growths  re- 
ferred to  above  rarely  bear  fruits  more  than  two  years, 
often  only  one.  They  soon  die  and  must  be  cut  out. 

All  this  indicates  far  more  severe  pruning  of  the  peach 
than  of  the  apple  or  the  pear.  This  is  especially  the  case 
with  young  trees  whose  "leaders"  are  prone  to  make 
the  trees  too  high.  Pruners  often  remove  or  very  severely 
cutback  all  the  leaders  for  several  years,  even  though  they 
know  new  ones  fully  as  vigorous  will  replace  them. 

62a.  The  plums  vary  somewhat  with  their  species  as 


FIG.    40— JAPANESE    PLUM 
It   is   characteristic   of   this  species  to  pro- 
duce  flowers  largely  in  threes. 


62  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

to  the  positions  of  their  blossom  buds.  None  of  them 
bear  on  "this  season's"  growth  so  they  naturally  belong 
to  the  first  group  in  the  classification  (56).  The  great 
majority  of  the  fruit  buds  are  borne  on  short  spurs  similar 


FIG.   41— BLOSSOM    BUDS   OF   SOUR    CHERRY  ARE   BORNE   ALMOST    TO   THE 

TERMINALS,    BUT    ARE    MOST    NUMEROUS    NEAR    THE    BASES 

OF   THE    ONE   SEASON'S    GROWTH 

to  those  of  the  cherry,  though  in  the  varieties  of  some 
species  and  hybrids  many  are  developed  in  the  axiN  »f 
leaves  on  the  one-year  ucod.  These  bloom  "next  >ea- 


BUDS 


63 


son."  The  spurs  bear  their  fruit  buds  mainly  near  the 
ends  and  lose  the  function  in  their  lower  parts  as  the  spur 
elongates  and  branches.  This  may  be  readily  determined 
by  examining"  an  old  spur:  the  scars  indicate  where  buds 
formerly  developed  into  fruit.  The  distinction  between 
fruit  and  leaf  buds  is  not  as  easy  to  make  as  in  the  peach, 
pear  or  apple.  Position  is  the  safest  guide.  Usually  the 
tip  bud  will  produce  a  twig.  Often,  however,  a  side  bud 


FIG.    42— SWEET    CHERRY    TWIG    IN    TWO    SECTIONS 

Blossoms  opening  on  the  right  from  cluster  buds  near  the  base  of  the  annual 
growth.  On  the  same  twig  higher  up  other  buds  have  produced  only  leaves.  The 
end  of  the  two-year  wood  is  seen  at  the  base  of  the  right-hand  section. 

will  also  do  so,  though  it  is  generally  a  flower  bud.  The 
best  time  to  study  this  point  is  when  the  buds  are  swell- 
ing in  spring. 

63.  The  apricot  resembles  the  peach  in  fruiting  habit, 
though  it  bears  fewer  fruit  buds  on  the  vigorous  new 
wood.  It  bears  considerable  numbers  on  short  growths 
which  resemble  the  spurs  of  cherries  and  plums,  though 
some  are  so  short  as  to  appear  almost  sessile  and  thus 


64 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


to  be  clusters  of  buds  on  the  branch.  A  close  examination 
will  show  that  each  of  these  groups  of  buds  is  borne  in 
the  axil  of  one  leaf.  This  method  of  flower  bud  bearing- 
is  less  general  than  the  production  of  buds  singly  in  the 
leaf  axils. 

64.  Cherries  bear  their  fruit  buds  mainly  on  short  spurs 
(Figs.  44,  45),  much  less  laterally  on  the  vigorous  young 
shoots,  except  as  noted  below.  In  all 
cases,  however,  the  buds  are  axillary, 
the  termnal  being  a  branch  bud. 
hence  the  usually  straight  fruit  spurs. 
As  in  the  peach  the  twigs  produced 
"last  year"  often  bear  blossom  buds 
mostly  near  their  bases.  The 
branch  buds  farther  up  tnese  twigs 
will  many  of  them  develop  "this 
year"  into  spurs  for  "next  year's" 
fruiting  (Fig.  45).  Among  the  sour 
cherries  certain  varieties  produce 
considerable  numbers  of  bloom 
buds  on  the  new  growths.  After 
these  have  fruited  they  drop  off  and 
thus  leave  the  long  naked  branches 
so  commonly  seen  among  the  sour 
cherry  varieties.  The  only  areas 
that  bear  fruit  in  such  varieties  are 
near  the  ends  of  these  slender 
branches. 

65.  Recognition  of  fruit  buds. — 
The  cluster  buds  of  apples  and 
pears  are  readily  distinguished  by 
their  plumpness  and  their  well- 
rounded  shape.  Those  of  apricot  and  peach,  though 
smaller,  are  about  as  conspicuous  as  apple  and  pear 
buds  because  of  their  positions  as  well  as  their 
forms.  Cherry  buds,  especially  on  "last  season's"  wood, 
are  harder  to  recognize  because  they  are  not  very  much 


FIG.  43— SWEET  CHERRY 
Twig  shows  numerous 
spurs  on  two  and  three-year 
wood.  Cluster  buds  (not 
seen)  form  near  the  base  of 
one-year  wood.  Note  that 
the  tips  of  all  spurs  produce 
branches  as  indicated  by  the 
leaves.  The  same  is  true  of 
terminal  and  axial  buds. 


BUDS 


65 


FIG.   44— SOUR 

CHERRY 

At  a  is  the  dividing 
point  between  one- 
y  e  a  r  and  two-year 
wood.  A  fruit  spur  is 
also  shown  here.  Simi- 
lar spurs  are  seen  at 
b.  Each  of  these  bears 
three  or  four  blossom 
buds  and  one  branch 
bud,  the  latter  at  the 
tip.  The  spurs  lower 
down  have  only  branch 
buds  at  their  tips. 
Branch  buds  are  also 
seen  on  the  one-year 
wood. 

themselves,  all  have 
vigorous  "last  season 


FIG.   45  -FOUR-YEAR    SWEET 

CHERRY  TWIG 

Letters  indicate  ends  of  annual 
growths.  The  main  twig  is  four  years 
old;  the  largest  branch  three.  The 
center  bud  in  each  cluster  on  the  spurs 
is  usually  a  branch  bud  whose  func- 
tion is  to  extend  the  spur. 

blunter  than  the  branch  buds  and 
because    there    is    nothing   about 
their  position  to  distinguish  them. 
Plums,   more   especially  those   of 
the  Domestica  class,  though  dif- 
fering in   minor   respects   among 
axillary  fruit  buds — sometimes  on 
s"  twigs,  sometimes  on  older  wood. 


66 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRTXIXG 


FIG.    46— FRUIT   AND 
LEAF    BUDS    OF 

PEACH 

A,  end  of  two-year 
and  beginning  of  one- 
year  wood.  Buds 
largely  in  threes.  The 
outside  ones  are  fruit 
buds  the  ones  between 
leaf  buds.  B,  is  con- 
tinuation of  another 
part  of  the  shoot — an- 
other third  part.  Such 
growths  must  be  cut 
back  severely  both  to 
reduce  the  numbzr  of 
fruits  and  to  prevent 
the  undue  extens'on 
of  the  branches  from 
the  terminal  buds, 
more  particularly.  The 
whole  one -year  part  of 
the  branch  in  this  case 
is  30  inches  long.  It 
is  cut  in  A  at  8  inches 
and  in  B  at  10. 


FIG.  47 

PEACH  TWIGS  THAT 
HAVE  BORNE  FRUIT 
5,  note  annual  growth 
ring  at  c,  above  which 
the  twig  is  one  year 
old.  C,  four  ye  r  ' 
growth  of  a  so-call  d 
spur  with  annual 
growths  starting  at  c, 
d,  e.  Fru't  stems  on 
both  twi.2s  at  b.  Th  s 
the  fruits  and  th. 
growths  from  e  to  the 
FIG.  46  tips  of  branch  C  w  r 

developed  simultane- 
ously. Brairh  C  is  \2  inches  long  from  c  t; 
the  tip.  Compare  Fig.  46. 


FIG.  47 


Japanese  plums  suggest  the  apricot  in  bloom-bearing 
habit — axillary  buds  on  spurs  and  also  on  vigorous  young 
wood;  in  this  latter  case,  like  peach  bloom  buds,  in 
couples,  with  a  branch  bud  between.  1  Hiring  the  dormant 
season  the  .recognition  of  plum  blossom  buds  is  often  ex- 
ceedingly difficult,  though  in  some  varieties  it  is  easy. 

66.  Fruit  bud  formation  and  development.* — The  fruit 
depends  upon  the  formation  and  proper  development  of 


*  Paragraph^    fi(>    to    (i9    are    svno^ized    from    the    extensive    studies    of    A.    W. 
Drinkard,  Jr.,  of  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station,   annual  report,   1909-10. 


BUDS 


67 


FIG.  48— JAPANESE  PLUM 
The  branch  shows  one 
year's  growth  from  a  to  b  at 
which  latter  point  the  ter- 
minal bud  died  and  a  lateral 
branch  c  developed  24  inches 
long  the  following  season. 
At  the  same  time  two  other 
laterals  on  the  underside  of 
the  branch  also  developed  1 
and  2  inches  long  respec- 
tively. The  twigs  /  are  two 
years  old,  the  annual  rings 
being  shown  at  /.  Twigs  g 
are  one  year  old.  Fruit  spurs 
are  seen  at  ft.  The  fruit  buds 
are  largely  in  threes.  Hence 
the  need  of  fruit  thinning. 


FIG.  49— CURRANT  BRANCHES  OF 

VARIOUS  AGES 

A,  four-year  cane  which  has  twice  had  its 
leader  injured — a,  broken;  b,  girdled.  Branch 
c  is  two  years  old,  the  dividing  point  being 
at  c.  Branch  d,  also  two  years  old,  just  above 
the  upper  cluster  of  blossom  buds  at  d. 
Notice  blossom  buds  on  two-year  spurs  at  e. 
The  buds  on  the  one-year  growths  at  / 
should  produce  spurs  and  bloom  buds  for  the 
following  year's  fruit.  B,  one-year  cane  pro- 
duced from  the  base  of  the  bush.  Two  or 
three  such  canes  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
each  year  to  take  the  place  of  the  four-year- 
old  wood  removed  each  year.  C,  two-year- 
old  branch  with  bloom  buds  on  older  part,  and 
branch  (spur)  buds  on  the  younger. 


fruit  buds.  Hence  knowledge  of  the  time  such  buds  are 
formed  and  developed  will  lead  to  knowledge  of  the 
factors  that  influence  fruit  bud  formation  and  are  con- 
ducive or  detrimental  to  bud  development.  With  these 
assumptions  an  enormous  amount  of  work  was  conducted 
by  Mr.  Drinkard  to  determine,  (1)  the  period  of  fruit  bud 
formation  by  field  observations;  (2)  the  gross  develop- 
ment of  floral  parts  by  microtome  sections  covering  the 


68 


PR1XCIPI.KS    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


changes  between  the  initial  period  of  terminal  bud  forma- 
tion (lateral  for  peach  and  plum)  and  the  time  of  flower- 
ing; (3)  the  exact  date  of  differentiation  of  pollen  mother- 
cells  and  of  the  similar  stage  in  ovogenesis ;  (4)  the  period 

of     origin      of     pollen 
grains  and  of  ovules. 

During  the  growing 
season  buds  were  se- 
lected every  week  or  10 
days  and  during  the 
dormant  season  at 
longer  intervals.  They 
were  killed,  fixed,  em- 
bedded,  sectioned, 
stained  and  mounted 
according  to  approved 
laboratory  methods  and 
the  various  stages  of 
growth  and  develop- 
m  e  n  t  recorded  by 
photomicrographs,  of 
which  the  original  re- 
port shows  106.  It  is 
not  necessary  here  to 
detail  these  methods,  so 
we  will  pass  to  the 

67.  General  observa- 
tions. —  The  great 
amount  of  work  in- 
volved in  preparing  mi- 
crosopic  sections  made 
it  impossible  to  study  a 
large  number  of  varie- 
ties. At  first  four  va- 
rieties of  apples,  three 
of  plum  and  one  each 
of  peach,  pear  and 


FIG.    50— GOOSEBERRY    BRANCHES, 

YOUNG   AND  OLD 

A,  one-year  growth  from  root.  Two  or 
three  of  the  strongest  of  such  shoots  should 
be  allowed  to  grow  each  year  to  replace  old 
wood  cut  out  after  fruiting.  Notice  position 
of  buds  and  length  of  spines — three  in  a 
cluster.  The  buds  should  form  spurs  for 
fruiting  next  season.  B,  five-year-old  branch 
of  a  much  less  spiny  variety.  Canes  should 
not  be  allowed  to  grow  as  old  as  this,  but  be 
pruned  out  when  three  or  at  most  four  years 
old.  Bushes  kept  young  by  such  pruning  are 
usually  healthier  than  ones  in  which  the  wood 
is  older.  Best  and  most  fruit  develops  on 
two  and  three-year  wood. 


BUDS 


69 


cherry  were  studied,  but  later  only  one  variety  oi  each 
fruit  was  studied.  Even  these  involved  the  preparation 
of  many  hundreds  of  mounts,  mostly  only  those  sections 

taken  transversely 
through  the  pistil 
of  the  flower  bud  or 
through  the  center 
of  the  bud  cluster. 
In  early  Novem- 
ber comparisons  of 
sections  of  fruit 
buds  from  25  varie- 
ties of  plums 
showed  a  surpris- 
ingly wide  range  of 
development  in- 
stead of  expected 
uniformity.  Hale,  a 
Japanese  variety, 
showed  the  most 
advanced  develop- 
ment with  flower 
parts  apparently 
ready  to  unfold, 
pollen  grains  well 
formed,  pistils  well 
developed,  ovules 
in  the  ovaries  and 
buds  decidedly 
swelled,  as  though 
preparing  to  open. 
On  the  other  hand, 
some  varieties,  es- 
pecially among  na- 
tives, showed  very  slight  development,  even  during  the 
latter  third  of  the  month.  Shortly  after  mid-December, 
examinations  of  20  apple  varieties  showed  a  narrower 


FIG.  51— GRAPE  CANE  ONE  YEAR  OLD 
The  small  piece  at  the  base  of  the  left  section  is 
two-year-old  wood.  The  little  knob  at  A  is  not  a 
bud,  but  the  remains  of  a  lateral.  Normally,  buds 
develop  opposite  tendrils  or  fruit  clusters  (modified 
tendrils).  Most  of  the  tendrils  in  the  specimen 
were  broken  off  during  the  growing  season.  Each 
bud  is  capable  of  producing  a  new  cane  bearing 
leaves,  fruit  clusters  and  tendrils. 


70  PRINCIPLES    AND    PKAC1  U  K    OF    PRUNING 

range  of  development,  the  majority  being  approximately 
the  same,  with  early  blooming  and  fruiting  varieties  in 
the  lead,  but  not  so  markedly  as  among  the  plums. 

68.  When  fruit  buds  may  be  recognized. — Attempts  to 
determine  the  approximate  date  when  fruit  buds  may  be 
distinguished   by    the    naked    eye    show    that    observers 
should  be  guided  partly 'by  the  positions  in  which  such 
buds  normally  appear.     Peach  and  plum  fruit  buds  may 
be  easily  found  in  early  fall,  so  may  cherries,  partly  by 
position,  partly  by  their  larger  size.    With  apple  and  pear 
the  feat  is  less  easy.     Increased  size  is  not  pronounced 
enough  until  late   November  or  early  December;  how- 
ever, a  pocket  lens  which  magnifies  10  or  15  times  will 
help  locate  such  buds  during  October. 

69.  Summary  and  conclusions. — •!.  Oldenburg  apple  fruit 
buds  began  to  form  in  late  June.    Several  other  varieties 
showed  similar  development ;  a  large  majority  of  the  fruit 
buds  formed  in  July,  though  the  initial  stages  in  many 
cases  appeared  late  into  the  summer.    Development  con- 
tinued through  summer  and  fall  with  completion  of  flower 
parts  by  about  November  1.     Development  through  the 
winter  was  mostly  microscopic.     In  late  February  and 
early  March  important  development  occurred  in  the  es- 
sential organs  prior  to  blossoming. 

2.  Kieffer  pear  fruit  buds  did  not  begin  to  differentiate 
until   after   mid-July.     Initial   flower  parts   appeared   in 
August.     Development  was  rapid  during  the  fall  up  to 
mid-November  when  the  flower  buds  in  the  cluster  were 
fairly   well   advanced.      Unimportant    changes    occurred 
during  the  winter.     In  late  February  and  early  March, 
changes  were  similar  to  those  in  the  apple. 

3.  Luster  peach  fruit  buds  began  to  form  the  first  week 
in  August.     In  about  three  months  they  were  ready  for 
wintering.     After  November  1   no  noticeable  change  oc- 
curred until  February,  though  cytological  changes  were 


BUDS 


71 


FIG.  52— RED  CURRANT  BLOOM 

CLUSTER 

Buds  borne  on  last  season's 
wood;  leaves  and  bloom  together. 
Young  wood  like  this  bears  more 
profusely  and  larger  fruit  than 
does  older  wood. 


FIG.  53 
GOOSEBERRY 
Notice     that     the 
flowers     are     produced 
from      over-wintering 
buds    on    wood    of   the 
previous  season. 


occurring  in  the  essential  organs. 
Some  buds  showed  division  in  the  pollen  mother-cells 
after  mid-December;  others  had  mature  pollen  grains  in 
mid-January,  a  process  complete  at  the  end  of  that  month 
when  the  buds  were  ready  to  unfold,  which  they  did 
during  February  and  early  March. 

4.  Plum  fruit  buds  showed  wider  variation  of  develop- 
ment than  those  of  apples.  Among  Japanese  varieties 
they  began  to  appear  the  second  week  in  July ;  among 
Americans,  the  first  week ;  among  hortulanas  the  first 


72  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

week  in  September.  In  this  last  case  (the  variety  most 
studied)  the  buds  differentiated  into  flower  parts  during 
October  and  continued  development  until  late  December. 
During  January  development  was  only  cytological.  in 
early  February  this  variety  resumed  active  growth  and 
by  the  end  of  the  month  had  developed  important  changes 
in  the  essential  organs.  The  flowers  were  then  ready  to 
unfold. 

5.  Louis  Phillippe  cherry  fruit  buds  began  to  form  the 
first  week  in  July,  and  by  the  close  of  the  month  the 
flower  parts  had  begun  to  differentiate,  but  development 
proceeded   slowly   through   summer   and   fall   until   late 
November.      From   then   until    February   changes   were 
cytological.     In  late  February  the  essential  changes  had 
taken  place.    The  buds  began  to  swell  rapidly  and  were 
ready  to  unfold  in  early  March. 

6.  The  following  general  conclusions  are  deduced  from 
the  foregoing  data: 

(a)  Buds  which  produce  the  crop  of  bloom  for  the 
current  year  are  formed  the  preceding  summer;   initial 
fruit  bud  formation  has  its  beginning  in  June  or  July,  de- 
pending on  seasonal  conditions  and  the  kind  of  fruit. 

(b)  The  proper  development  of  the  fruit  bud  would, 
therefore,  be  influenced  by  factors  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  tree  prior  to  and  during  the  period  at  which  fruit 
bud  formation  takes  place.     In  the  practice  of  such  or- 
chard operations  as  are  designed  to  influence  or  control 
fruit  bud  formation  it  appears  that  such  operations  should 
be  more  effective  in   spring  and  early  summer  than  at 
other  stages  of  development. 

Among  his  conclusions  J.  H.  Gourley  reports  the  fol- 
lowing (somewhat  condensed)  :* 

70.  Bud  studies  of  Baldwin  apple. — The  formation 
of  axillary  buds  on  current  season's  growth  is  not 
uncommon  with  the  Baldwin  and  many  other  varieties 
of  apples.  In  alternate  bearing  trees  we  find  a 

*  New  Hampshire  Technical  Bulletin  No.  9. 


DQ    £ 

tu   2 
O  -g 


U     3 
Z  JJ 


, 

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74  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRCXIXC 

heavier  deposition  of  food  material  in  the  storage 
tissues  when  the  tree  has  formed  fruit  buds.  On  the 
average  we  found  about  4  per  cent  greater  specific  gravity 
of  the  twigs  and  branches  in  winter  condition  where  fruit 
buds  were  formed  [than  where  they  were  absent].  A 
much  larger  leaf  area  is  produced  in  the  "off"  year  than 
in  the  bearing  year,  amounting  to  2.08  square  inches 
more  to  the  leaf  in  the  trees  studied. 

A  second  period  of  fruit  bud  formation  the  latter  part 
of  summer  and  early  fall  is  evidenced  by  the  fruit  buds 
formed  on  the  terminus  of  the  second  growth. 

No  relationship  could  be  traced  between  the  rainfall  of 
the  growing  season  and  the  fruit  bud  formation  in  this 
experiment  through  a  period  of  seven  years.  .  .  .  The 
plots  where  the  moisture  ran  the  lowest  during  the  period 
of  fruit  bud  formation,  coupled  with  good  growing  con- 
ditions earlier  in  the  season,  produced  the  largest  number 
of  fruit  buds. 

Trees  receiving  cultivation,  and  cultivation  with  cover, 
greatly  increased  their  capacity  for  fruit  bud  formation 
over  trees  standing  in  sod. 

The  use  of  fertilizers  in  addition  to  cultivation  has  not 
as  yet  increased  the  fruit  bud  formation. 

71.  Currants  and  gooseberries  bear  their  fruit  buds 
largely  upon  shoots  which  grew  "last  season"  (Figs.  49, 
50).  They  also  produce  spurs  which  are  often  so  short 
as  to  be  mistaken  for  buds.  Such  spurs  are.  however, 
always  on  wood  more  than  one  season  old ;  in  other  words 
a  wood  bud  last  season  developed  a  twig  perhaps  only  % 
inch  long  and  produced  a  terminal  cluster  bud  on  this 
tiny  growth.  This  year  the  bud  will  not  only  develop 
leaves  and  fruits,  but  will  extend  more  or  less  and  pro- 
duce one  to  several  cluster  buds  or  wood  buds  or  both 
kinds.  Currant  and  gooseberry  spurs,  rarely  grow  more 
than  1  inch  long,  perhaps  because  the  tendency  of  the 
plants  is  to  develop  fruit  on  young  wood — wood  of  last 
season,  and  two  or  three  seasons  ago.  Bushes  that  have 


BUDS 


75 


been  allowed  to  shift  for  themselves  show  that  spurs 
older  than  these  ages  lose  the  power  to  produce  fruit  and 
what  fruit  they 
do  develop  is  of 
inferior  .size. 
Not  only  so, 
but  the  young- 
er shoots  borne 
on  old  canes  are 
shorter  and 
bear  fewer  and 
inferior  fruits. 

These  phe- 
n  o  m  e  n  a  are 
partly  due  to 
the  shoot  itself 
-  its  age,  its 
injuries  by  in- 
sects and  dis- 
eases, etc.,  and 
partly  to  the 
crowding  of 
young  growths 
sent  up  from 
the  base  of  the 
plant.  For 
these  reasons, 
therefore,  fruit 
growers  rarely 
allow  canes  to 
grow  more  than 
five  years  old; 
in  fact,  many 
prefer  to  cut  them  out  after  they  have  fruited  two  or  three 
times,  or  the  three  best  new  canes  produced  from  the 
stool  each  season  are  allowed  to  develop  so  as  to  keep 
up  a  constant  succession  of  young  bearing  wood. 


FIG.    55— RED    RASPBERRY    FRUITING    BRANCH 
The  erect  stem  grew   last  year  and  this  year  developed 
its    branches    from    over-wintering    buds.      After    fruiting 
the  whole  stem  will   die,  therefore  it  may  as  well  be  cut 
out    as   soon   as  the    fruit  has  been   harvested. 


76  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

72.  The  bramble  fruits  (raspberries,  blackberries,  dew- 
berries, etc.),  like  currants  and  gooseberries,  develop  new 
canes  from  their  stools  or  crowns,  as  the  starting  points 
of  their  clumps  are  called,  but  these  canes  never  live 
longer  than  two  seasons.    This  year  the  cane  grows  and 
becomes  more  or  less  woody.     It  may  develop  few  to 
several  side  branches.     In  some  cases  (St.  Regis  rasp- 
berry) flowers  and  fruits  may  be  borne  during  the  latter 
part  of  this  summer,  but  normally  not  until  next  season. 
In  other  words,  the  resting  buds  normally  push  out  in 
spring  into  shoots  which  terminate   in  flowers  usually 
borne  in  clusters.      (Figs.  55,   56).     Thus  the  branches 
bear  fruit  on  this  season's  leafy  shoots  produced  from 
resting  buds  on  last  season's  wood. 

Because  the  fruits  are  borne  terminally  the  shoots  can- 
not extend  to  form  long  canes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  grape 
57).  As  soon  as  the  fruit  has  ripened  the  canes  begin 
to  decline.  They  are  of  no  further  use  to  the  plant  be- 
cause they  will  die  next  winter.  Therefore,  many  rasp- 
berry growers  cut  them  out  as  soon  as  they  have  fruited  ; 
others  leave  them  until  the  following  winter.  The  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  former  practice  is  that  they  are  a 
menace  to  the  well  being  of  the  plant,  since  they  interfere 
with  air  circulation  and  light,  and  are  sources  of  infesta- 
tion both  of  insects  and  diseases.  The  argument  in  favor 
of  cutting  them  out  during  winter  is  that  there  is  then 
less  danger  of  injuring  the  young  canes  by  roughly  pull- 
ing the  old  ones  out,  that  the  danger  of  infestation  and 
the  advantages  of  light  and  air  are  over-estimated,  and 
that  the  pruning  can  be  done  at  a  season  when  work  is 
not  so  pressing  as  during  the  summer. 

73.  Grapes  resemble  the  bramble  fruits  in  one  respect, 
but  differ  in   another.      Like   the   brambles,   their  leafy 
shoots,  developed  from  resting  buds  on  last  season's  or 
older  wood,  produce  fruits  this  season,  but  unlike  the 
brambles  their  fruit  clusters  are  not  terminal.    Therefore, 


BUDS 


77 


grapes  are  not  limited  in  either  the  age  or  the  extent  of 
their 'shoots.  To  state  the  case  succinctly,  grapes,  except 
as  noted  below,  bear  their  fruits  on  shoots  developed  from 
resting  buds  on  last  season's  growth.  As  each  shoot  de- 
velops from  a  resting  bud  it  unfolds  leaves,  opposite  each 
of  which  is  a  cluster  of  grapes  or  a  tendril.  Whether  the 
tendril  is  an  aborted  cluster,  or  the  cluster  a  specialized 
tendril  is  a  point  concerning  which  botanists  are  not 


FIG.  56— BLACK   RASPBERRY    FRUITING    LATERALS  AND   CANE 
The  large  branch   grew  from  the  ground  "last"   year  and  developed  buds   from 
which    the    leafy,    fruiting    branches    developed    "this"    season.      After    the    fruit   has 
ripened  the  whole   branch   will   die.     It  may   be    therefore   cut   out  of  the   stool   or 
hill  as  soon  as  the  fruit  has  been  gathered. 

agreed.  The  fact  that  one  blends  into  the  other  is  well 
shown  in  Figure  57  the  lowest  cluster  being  complete, 
the  next  one  provided  with  a  tendril,  and  the  third  being 
rather  a  tendril  with  a  little  cluster  as  a  side  issue.  With 
knowledge  that  each  resting  bud  on  last  year's  canes  is 
capable  of  producing  two  to  five  clusters  of  grapes,  the 


78 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


pruner  can  decide  in  a  general  way  beforehand  how  he 
shall  cut  each  cane  in  order  to  produce  a  given  number 
of  bunches  to  the  vine,  a  crop  of  a  certain  weight  to  the 
acre,  or  of  a  certain  quality.  Seasonal  conditions  may  alter 
his  calculations  made  at  pruning  time  during  winter,  but 
skillful  pruners'  calculations  are  close  to  the  actual  yields. 


FIG.  57— CHARACTERISTIC  GRAPE  SHOOT  OF  A  LABRUSCA  VARIETY 
This  shoot  developed  from  an  over-wintering  bud.  Note  that  a  tendril  is 
opposite  each  leaf  and  that  the  lowest  three  of  these  tendrils  have  formed  clusters 
of  fruit.  Observe  also  that  two  of  these  are  part  cluster  and  part  tendril.  In  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  are  buds  which  will  form  laterals.  These  rarely  produce  fruit 
in  the  northeastern  United  States  because  the  season  is  too  short. 

Usually  only  two  to  five  of  the  lower  buds  on  the  canes 
produce  clusters,  but  under  favorable  conditions  shoots 
produced  in  the  axils  of  this  year's  leaves  may  develop 
lateral  canes  which  may  produce  and  mature  clusters  of 
fruits.  In  some  cases  this  method  may  be  again  repeated 
by  secondary  laterals  produced  on  the  first  laterals,  so 
that  in  a  sense  a  cane  would  bear  three  crops  of  grapes 
during  the  same  season. 


BUDS 


79 


74.  Pruning  vs.  no  pruning. — C.  A.  Keffer  *  draws  the 
following  conclusions  from  a  series  of  experiments  in 
pruning. 

Unpruned  grape  canes  give  a  heavier  total  yield  of  fruit  the  first 
season  neglected  than  do  pruned  canes,  but  the  average  bunch  weight 
is  much  less.  As  the  result  of  over-bearing  much  of  the  new  growth 
will  die,  thus  greatly  reducing  the  next  crop. 

The  base  bud  in  Concord,  Niagara,  Delaware  and  Brighton  grapes 
gave  the  lightest  weight  of  fruit.  In  Niagara  and  Delaware  the 
average  yield  from  the  second  bud  was  over  twice  as  much  as  from 
the  first  bud,  while  in 
Concord  and  Brighton 
it  was  more  than  half 
again  as  much.  In  all 
four  varieties  the  yield 
from  the  third  bud  was 
greater  than  from  the 
second.  Considering  the 
first  12  buds  (grape 
canes  are  seldom  left 
longer  than  12  nodes  at 
pruning),  the  greatest 
yield  is  reached  in 
Concord  at  the  sixth 
bud,  in  Niagara  and 
Delaware  at  the  eighth 
bud,  and  in  Brighton  at 
the  tenth  bud. 

Arranging  the  buds 
in  groups  of  three, 
Concord  gives  the  best 
yield  from  buds  4  to  6 ; 
Niagara,  Delaware  and 
Brighton  from  buds  7 
to  9.  The  relative  order 
of  yield  for  the  four 
groups  is  as  follows :  Concord,  group  2,  3,  1,  4 ;  Niagara,  group 
3,  4,  2,  1 ;  Delaware,  group  3,  2,  4,  1 ;  Brighton,  group  3,  4,  2,  1. 

Concord  is  better  adapted  than  the  other  varieties  named  to  short- 
spur  systems  of  pruning  and  training.  In  this  variety  it  would  prob- 
ably be  more  profitable  to  reduce  the  number  of  spurs  to  the  vine 
and  increase  the  length  of  the  spur  to  six  buds.  Niagara  and 
Brighton  would  seem  to  be  most  profitably  pruned  at  the  tenth  and 
the  twelfth  buds.  While  there  is  less  difference  between  the  yields 
of  buds  1  to  6  and  7  to  12  in  Delaware,  the  indications  favor  the 
longer  cane. 


FIG.  58— HOW  QUINCE  BEARS  BLOOM 
Flowers  terminal  on  shoots  of  the  growing  sea- 
son. The  main  terminal  of  last  year  made  an  at- 
tempt to  produce  a  fruit,  as  shown  by  the  abortive 
mummy.  Note  that  the  buds  below  this  mummy 
have  produced  new  shoots  with  bloom  buds.  Thus 
the  blooming  wood  is  only  about  one  month  old 
and  the  shoot  bearing  it  a  year  old. 


*  Tennessee  Experiment  Station   Bulletin  77. 


80 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


In  long-cane  systems,  horizontal  training  is  preferable  to  upright 
or  diagonal    training,    as  the  lower   buds   of  the    cane    are     better 

nourished  in  the  horizontal  systems. 
The  observations  and  conclusions 
herein  indicated,  being  based  on  one 
crop,  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  con- 
clusive, but  rather  as  a  preliminary 
report. 

75.  The  quince  Fig.  58.- 
Last  season  the  quince  de- 
veloped resting  buds  which  all 
looked  alike.  This  spring  the 
buds  that  grow  will  develop 
leafy  shoots,  mostly  short . 
Some  of  these  shoots  in  favored 
positions  will  produce  terminal 
blossoms.  Hence  the  shoots  of 
the  quince,  at  least  in  the  fruit- 
bearing  parts  of  the  plant,  are 
irregular  because  the  direction 
of  growth  is  changed  wherever 
a  fruit  is  borne.  This  method 
of  blossom  bearing  is  called 
coter.minal,  because  the  flowers 
are  at  the  tips  of  axial  shoots 
of  this  season. 

"  Flowers  are  unquestionably  formed 
the  season  previous  to  their  expan- 
sion in  quince,  raspberry,  blackberry 
and  grape,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  no  flower  buds  can  be  dis- 
tinguished in  autumn  in  these  plants. — [E.  S.  Goff.* 


FIG.  59 

QUINCE  METHOD  OF  FRUITING 
a,  b,  c,  positions  where  fruits 
were  borne  in  previous  years. 
d,  Last  year's  mummied  fruit. 
Notice  that  the  fruits  are  borne 
terminally  and  that  new  twigs 
(a,  b)  appear  from  lateral  buds 
close  to  the  points  where  the 
fruits  were  produced  the  previous 
year. 


*  Wisconsin  Annual  Report  1901. 


CHAPTER  V 
PRUNING  PRINCIPLES 

Horticultural  literature  is  full  of  rules  for  pruning,  but 
since  many  of  these  apply  to  specific  plants,  aims  and  con- 
ditions, and  therefore  may  not  apply  to  other  plants,  aims 
and  conditions,  the  reader  is  likely  to  encounter  many 
apparent  contradictions.  From  the  standpoint  of  prac- 
tice the  student  can  become  proficient  only  by  working 
with  a  considerable  number  of  plants,  not  merely  speci- 
mens, but  varieties  and  species,  under  widely  varying 
environments.  This  is  because  no  two  specimens  grow- 
ing even  side  by  side  are  alike.  The  differences  in  habit 
shown  by  varieties  of  the  same  species  are  still  greater, 
and  those  between  species  greater  yet ;  and  all  these  dif- 
ferences are  augmented  or  modified  by  the  natural  or 
artificial  conditions  under  which  the  plants  are  growing. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  eliminate  or  at  least  somewhat 
reduce  this  confusion,  the  effort  has  been  made  to  state 
the  most  important  principles  upon  which  rational  prun- 
ing is  based. 

76.  Pruning  aims. — The  aims  of  pruning  may  be 
grouped  under  three  ideals.  Namely,  the  forester's,  the 
landscape  gardener's  or  ornamental  horticulturist's  and 
the  flower  or  fruit  grower's.  So  far  as  pruning  is  con- 
cerned the  forester  is  mainly  interested  in  securing  tree 
trunks  which  shall  be  free  from  large  knots  and  decay. 
He  considers  beauty  of  form  and  yield  of  fruit  little  if  at 
all.  The  landscape  gardener  and  the  ornamental  horti- 
culturist endeavor  to  have  their  plants  attractive,  either 
as  individual  specimens  or  as  groups.  If  they  consider 
the  trunks  of  their  specimens,  it  is  not  with  a  forester's 
eye  to  later  profit,  and  if  they  think  of  the  fruit  at  all  it 
is  for  the  sake  of  beauty.  The  florist  and  the  fruit  grower, 

81 


82 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUMNG 


like  the  landscape  gardener,  look  to  the  health  of  their 
trees,  shrubs  and  vines,  but  their  main  aim  is  the  flower 
or  the  fruit. 

77.  Pruning  principles  classified. — While  these  three 
men  differ  in  their  ultimate  aims,  the  methods  they  em- 
ploy may  be  grouped  under  two  main  heads;  namely,  (1) 

those  which  consider  the  health 
and  the  behavior  of  the  plant- 
pruning  proper,  and  (2)  those 
which  consider  the  develop- 
ment of  size  and  form  of  the 
plant — training.  \Yhile  these 
principles,  are  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct, some  of  them  neverthe- 
less blend  into  each  other.  They 
may  be  summarized  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 

A.  Pruning  proper 

1.  Principles  which  deal  with  the 
removal   of   injured  or   unnec- 
essary parts. 

2.  Principles  which  affect  vegeta- 
tive vigor. 

3.  Principles    which    affect   flower 
and  fruit  production. 

4.  Principles     which     change     the 
wood-bearing     habit     into     the 
fruit-bearing  habit,  or  vice  versa. 

B.  Training 

1.  Principles  which  limit  the  size 
or  the  form  of  plants. 

2.  Principles   which   affect  planta- 
tion    management,     as     in    the 

facilitation  of  tillage,  spraying,  harvesting,  etc. 

3.  Principles  which  underly  training  to  special  forms. 

The  most  important  principles  which  come  under  the 
former  of  these  heads  (78  to  112)  are  deduced  from  the 
laws  of  plant  physiology  (Chapter  II).  The  others  are 
mainly  based  upon  convenience,  economy  or  experience. 
Familiarity  with  these  principles  will  enable  the  operator 


FIG.    60—  "DER     END    OF     DER 

LIMIT"  IN  PRUNING 
This  weeping  willow  wept  sev- 
eral of  its  upper  branches,  so  a 
tree  butcher  slashed  out  a  lot  of 
the  top.  When  his  ghastly  work 
was  done  it  was  decided  to  "go 
him  one  better,"  so  the  main  trunk 
was  cut  as  shown,  leaving  the 
secondary  trunk  to  its  fate — for 
already  the  stump  shows  decay. 


PRUNING  PRINCIPLES  83 

to  approach  a  new  variety  or  species  with  more  confidence 
than  if  he  have  nothing  but  mere  rule  of  thumb  to  guide 
him. 


PRINCIPLES  STATED  AND  DISCUSSED 

78.  /.  /;/  fruit  production  and  in  ornamental  horticulture, 
priming  is  of  secondary  importance  to  constant  good  man- 
agement of  the  plants;  in  forestry  it  is  an  incidental  in  tree 
growing. 

This  rule  is  axiomatic ,  for  no  amount  of  pruning  will 
make  for  the  thrift  of  the  plants  where  neglect  and  abuse 
run  riot.  Furthermore,  the  man  who  neglects  or  abuses  his 
trees  is  not  the  one  who  will  prune,  except  as  some  branch 
happens  to  inconvenience  him.  Even  then  his  pruning  is 
more  likely  to  deserve  the  name  of  tree  butchery  (Fig. 
61)  than  pruning. 

79.  2.  A   definite  ideal,  familarity  with   the  basic  prin- 
ciples, and  a  careful  consideration  of  environment  are  es- 
sential to  best  pruning  practice. 

This  principle  is  also  axiomatic,  for  unless  the  primer 
know  what  he  is  aiming  at  he  cannot  hit  the  mark;  unless 
he  apply  the  right  principles  he  may  work  to  the  injury  or 
the  inferiority  of  the  plant;  and  unless  he  study  the  environ- 
ment he  cannot  apply  what  principles  he  may  know  as  in- 
telligently as  he  otherwise  might. 

80.  ?.  Climate  and  locality  markedly  influence  both  the 
necessity  and  the  effects  of  pruning.     Methods  that  succeed 
under  one  set  of  local  conditions  must  be  modified  or  avoided 
under  otliers. 

Plants  show  considerable  differences  of  development  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  even  in  the  same  state,  as 
noted  below.  Then,  too,  local  influence  must  be  considered. 
Tn  regions  where  the  winters  are  mild,  say  from  New 
Jersey  to  Ohio  and  southward,  wounds  may  in  no  wise  injure 
the  trees  pruned  in  winter;  whereas  where  the  winters  are 


84 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE  OF    PRUNING 


very  cold  and  dry,  as  in  the  plains  region  of  Nebraska  and 
adjacent  states,  wounds  made  at  that  season  may  allow  so 
much  water  to  evaporate  from  the  cut  surfaces  that  the 
trees  may  suffer  more  or  less  seriously  from  winterkilling. 
In  such  regions  it  is  advisable  to  avoid  breaking  the  bark 
between  mid-autumn  and  early  spring.  Damage  may  be 
wrought  in  hot  and  dry  regions,  as  in  Arkansas,  Oklahoma. 


FIG.  61— THE  TREE  BUTCHER  S 
METHOD 

"Pruning"  with  an  axe  is  a 
common  tree  crime  in  the  neg- 
lected home  orchard.  Such  wounds 
never  heal  over,  but  always  shorten 
the  life  of  the  tree  because  decay 
will  work  its  way  into  the  heart 
wood  of  the  trunk.  Figs.  84  and  203 
show  advanced  stages  of  this  work. 


FIG.  62 

UPRIGHT    LIMB    REPLACES 
HORIZONTAL    ONE 

How  this  tree  trunk  became  bent 
to  horizontal  is  not  known.  The 
trunk  after  bending  extended  hori- 
zontally to  the  right,  but  as  the 
vertical  water  sprout  developed  it 
robbed  the  prostrate  trunk  of  food. 
The  trunk  shortly  died,  broke  off 
and  the  stub  slowly  healed  over. 


Arizona  and  bordering  states,  by  sun  scalding,  which  often 
follows  severe  pruning,  but  such  pruning  generally  indicates 
that  the  trees  have  been  neglected  perhaps  during  several 
to  many  years.  Doubtless  in  such  regions  less  pruning  is 
necessary  than  in  more  humid  regions. 

While  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  other  eastern 
states  with  long  extent  north  and  south  present  considerable 
differences  in  pruning  practice,  a  more  striking  instance  is 


PRUNING  PRINCIPLES  85 

to  be  found  in  the  state  of  Washington,*  where  the  Cascade 
mountains  divide  the  state  into  two  climates,  a  cloudy  humid 
area  to  the  west  and  a  clear  dry  one  to  the  east.  In  the 
humid  area  the  abundance  of  moisture  in  air  and  soil,  and 
the  mild  climate  favor  excessive  wood  development,  often 
an  annual  growth  of  6  to  10  feet  of  cherry  and  prune 
branches.  The  trees  continue  to  grow  late  in  the  autumn  and 
fully  ripened  wood  is  often  difficult  to  secure.  Severe  winter 
pruning  aggravates  the  evil  of  this  excessive  wood  growth 
by  making  more  and  longer  wood  growths.  To  check 
growth,  therefore,  growers  resort  to  summer  pruning,  shoot- 
pinching  and  even  root  pruning.  The  eastern  or  dry  area 
is  characterized  by  "a  long,  dry  summer  with  a -fierce, 
scorching  sun  and  strong,  drying  winds  .  .  .  followed  by 
a  severe  winter  with  fluctuating  temperature  and  sudden 
changes.  In  portions  of  the  fruit  belt  there  is  barely  enough 
moisture  in  the  ground  to  sustain  a  tree."  Under  these  con- 
ditions trees  "come  to  maturity  at  an  early  age,  and  produce 
fruit  at  a  time  in  their  lives  when  they  ought  to  be  making 
wood  growth  and  establishing  a  strong,  healthy  frame  for 
future  usefulness."  In  this  region  severe  pruning  is  done 
in  winter  so  as  to  overcome  the  tendency  for  the  trees  to 
bear  too  young.  Cherries  fruit  at  two  years;  pears  an  1 
apples  bear  full  crops  at  five  or  six.  The  winter  pruning 
is  done  to  increase  wood  and  leaf  growth.  Summer  prun- 
ing and  shoot-pinching  are  avoided  in  the  dry  area.  In  the 
dry  plains  region,  the  tops  of  trees  must  be  kept  more  dense 
than  in  moister  regions. 

The  fruit  in  these  dry  areas  is  less  likely  to  suffer  from 
shade  than  from  exposure  to  sun  and  wind.  In  the  east 
most  orchardists  keep  the  lower  limbs  up  from  the  ground, 
to  improve  the  flavor  and  the  color  of  the  fruit;  in  the 
central  west  this  precaution  is  needless ;  therefore,  very  low- 
headed  trees  are  more  popular  than  in  the  east,  because  the 
trunks  and. branches  are  believed  thus  to  be  better  protected 
from  sun  scald. 

*  Bulletin  25,  Washington  Experiment  Station. 


86 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


81.  4.  Pruning  does  not  alter  the  natural  habit  of  plants, 
for  pruned  plants  resume  their  normal  habit  when  left  to 
themselves. 

Ordinary  observation  will  show  that  each  plant — speci- 
men, variety  and  species — has  an  individuality  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  every  other  plant.  No  matter  what  way 
or  how  much  it  may  be  pruned,  therefore,  it  will  seek  to  ex- 
press that  individuality  in  the  new  growth  which  follows 

pruning,  and  its  success 
will  be  largely  propor- 
tional to  its  vigor. 
Trees  which  naturally 
sprawl,  like  Winter 
Nelis  pear  and  Rhode 
Island  Greening  apple, 
cannot  be  made  to 
grow  erect  by  mere 
pruning,  and  those  nor- 
mally erect,  like  North- 
ern Spy  and  Rartlett, 
cannot  be  made  to 
droop.  Rational  prun- 
ing, therefore,  seeks 
merely  to  correct  faults 
and  to  maintain  the 
natural  form  of  the 
tree. 

The  proof  of  this  rule  is  seen  in  the  wilds  and  in  orchards 
which  formerly  were  trained  in  more  or  less  artificial  ways, 
but  which  have  latterly  been  neglected.  In  nature  trees 
which  have  been  blown  over  or  bent  and  held  down  by  other 
trees  falling  upon  them  frequently  develop  new  leaders 
(Fig.  62,  63)  ;  in  neglected  .orchards  the  formal  outline  of 
the  artificially  trained  tree  may  often  be  traced  through  the 
surrounding  younger  growths  which  make  a  top  more  or 
less  strikingly  different  in  form. 


FIG.  63 
LEADER  RENEWED  IN   BROKEN   TREE 


PRUNING  PRINCIPLES  87 

82.  5.  Plants  of  the  same  species  or  variety  vary  in  habit 
according  to  their  age,  hence   must  be  pruned  more  or  less 
differently  at  different  ages. 

The  tendency  for  young  plants  is  to  make  vigorous  erect 
growths  rapidly.  As  they  more  and  more  nearly  approach 
the  height  at  which  the  variety  may  be  said  to  have  reached 
maturity  the  more  does  the  rate  and  extent  of  growth  de- 
crease. Nothing  perhaps  has  so  marked  an  influence  in  this 
respect  as  fruit  bearing.  The  Kieffer  pear,  one  of  the  most 
striking  of  instances,  prior  to  fruit  bearing,  shoots  upward 
rapidly  and  forms  an  erect  tree ;  but  when  fruit  bearing  be- 
gins these  long  limbs  bend  over  and  spread  the  tree  often 
widely.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  bear  Principle  S  in  mind  so 
as  to  avoid  injuring  young  trees  by  injudicious  pruning. 
Later  when  the  trees  begin  to  bear  or  are  in  full  bearing  the 
treatment  may  be  considerably  changed  to  suit  the  new  type 
of  growth. 

83.  6.  Severe  pruning  of  the  branches  favors  or  increases 
vegetative  growth   (i.  e.,  wood  production);  hence  it  may 
be  employed  to  help  invigorate  iveak  plants. 

From  plant  physiology  (Chapter  II)  it  is  evident  that 
every  plant  which  is  growing  normally  has  a  perfect  balance 
between  its  roots  and  its  top.  The  root  supplies  the  top 
with  crude  food  materials  and  the  top  supplies  the  root  with 
elaborated  plant  food.  Thus  each  furnishes  the  other  with 
nourishment.  As  the  roots  increase  in  number  and  extent, 
therefore,  the  larger  the  quantity  of  crude  food  taken  in  the 
larger  must  become  the  leaf  development  and  consequently 
that  of  the  whole  plant. 

Should  a  considerable  amount  of  the  top  be  removed ,  for 
instance,  by  breakage  due  to  an  overload  of  fruit,  or  ice,  by 
storm  (Fig.  94),  by  excessive  pruning  or  by  such  tree 
butchery  as  telegraph,  telephone  and  electric  linemen  and 
others  too  often  practice  (Figs.  64,  65),  the  amount 
of  crude  food  taken  up  by  the  roots  will  be  distributed 
in  larger  proportion  to  the  remaining  parts,  unless 


88 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


the  root  area  be  also  reduced  by  root  pruning.  In  other 
words,  removal  of  the  top  upsets  the  balance  between  root 
and  top.  The  result  is  that  the  remaining  parts  make  greater 
vegetative  growth  than  they  normally  would  make  and  often 
water  sprouts  (Fig.  65),  and  suckers  may  be  developed  in 
greater  or  lesser  number  and  size.  Hence  gardeners  have 
formulated  the  rule  that  weak-growing  shrubs  should  have 
their  tops  pruned  severely,  but  strong  ones  only  lightly. 
Should  severe  pruning  become  necessary  to  correct  the  form 


Fir..   64— ONE  OF   THE   WORST   FOES 
OF   TREES   IS  THE  "LINE  MAN- 


FIG.     65— TREE'S     ATTEMPT     TO 
OFFSET   BUTCHERING 


<;r  to  train  a  plant,  under-stimulation  of  the  top  may  bo 
avoided  by  doing  the  work  piecemeal,  say  a  quarter  to  n 
third  at  a  time,  with  an  interval  of  a  week  to  perhaps  several 
months  between,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  plant 
being  pruned — herbaceous  ones,  such  as  tomatoes  grown 
under  glass,  requiring  very  frequent,  perhaps  even  semi- 
weekly  removal  of  small  quantities  of  foliage,  and.trees  de- 
manding not  more  than  one  or  at  most  two  primings  a  year. 

84.  Injurious  effects  of  pruning  on  the  growth  of  tree  trunks  are 
reported  hy  German  investigators  who  say  the  average  thickness  of 


PRUNING  PRINCIPLES  89 

the  limbs  of  many  trees  pruned  in  pyramidal  form  was  8.4  centimeters ; 
pruned  by  removing  only  dead  and  crossed  branches  9.5 ;  and  the 
unpruned  trees  11.7.  Contrary  to  the  general  belief  that  regular 
pruning  seems  to  make  stockier  trees,  these  experiments  indicate 
that  strong  pruning  prevents  the  rapid  growth  of  the  stem  rather 
than  furthers  it. 

85.  Pruned  Tomatoes.— In  West  Virginia,*  L.  C.  Corbett  found 
that  tomatoes  pruned  after  the  fruit  set  produced  a  greater  number 
of  ripe  fruits  to  the  plant  up  to  September   1  than   did  unpruned 
plants,  but  the  total  yield  from  each  plant  for  the  whole  season  was 
less.     Of  the  various  methods  of  pruning  tomatoes,  the  single  stem 
method  gave  somewhat  earlier  and  larger  fruits,  but  lessened  the 
total  yield  considerably. 

86.  English  experiments  in  apple  pruning.— At  Woburn,  England, 
S.  U.   Pickering  has   conducted  pruning  experiments  for   12  years. 
He  reports  that  trees  dug  up  and  weighed  show  that  the  less  a  tree 
is  pruned  the  larger  and  heavier  it  becomes.    At  the  end  of  the  12 
years  those   trees   not    pruned   were   20  per   cent   heavier  than  the 
moderately  pruned  ones,  whereas  the  heavily  pruned  trees  were  16 
per  cent  lighter.     Since  the  difference  in  weight  between   the  un- 
pruned and  the  moderately  pruned  trees  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
wood  removed  by  pruning,  it  is  concluded  that  pruning  does  not 
increase  the  actual  size  of  the  tree,  but  even  results  in  less  new 
wood  being    formed.    When  similar  branches  on  the  same  tree  were 
pruned  to  different  extents,  it  was  found  that  the  less  the  pruning 
the  greater  the  number,  length  and  weight  of  new  shoots  formed 
and  the  increase  in  girth  of  the  original  branch. 

The  reduction  in  pruning  appears  more  marked  as  regards  the 
crop.  With  dwarf  apple  trees,  during  the  first  five  years,  the  crops 
from  unpruned  trees  were  more  than  twice  as  great  as  from  those 
hard  pruned.  These  differences  were  increased  during  the  second 
period  of  five  years,  and  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  year  the  unpruned 
trees  yielded  nearly  three  times  as  much  as  the  moderately  pruned 
ones,  while  the  hard-pruned  ones  had  practically  no  crop  at  all. 
(Only  one  variety  was  in  fruit  for  comparison  during  the  twelfth 
year.) 

Similar  results  were  obtained  with  trees  of  53  and  80  varieties  of 
crab  and  paradise  stocks,  respectively.  The  trees  were  not  allowed 
to  overbear,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  size  of  fruit  obtained  from 
trees  pruned  to  different  extents  was  approximately  the  same,  hence 
the  values  of  the  crops  were  proportional  to  the  weights.  Confirma- 
tive evidence  of  the  antagonism  of  pruning  to  fruiting  was  obtained 
by  counting  the  fruit  buds  formed  on  similar  branches  of  the  same 
tree,  which  was  cut  back  to  different  extents.  All  of  the  above  re- 
sults refer  to  healthy,  vigorous-growing  trees. 

With  dwarf  apple  trees  15  years  old  the  author  finds  that  hard 
pruning  results  in  an  increase  of  the  new  wood  formed,  but  that 

*  Bulletin  49. 


90 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


the  crops  are  even  more  reduced  by  the  pruning  than  in  former 
years.  This  result  is  said  to  apply  also  to  trees  which  have  become 
stunted,  as  from  root  injury  in  transplanting. 

Since  hard  pruning  has  been  shown  to  be  the  correction  for  fruit- 
ing, it  is  concluded  that  freshly  planted  trees  should  be  cut  back 
hard  to  prevent  stunting  by  precocious  fruiting. 
With  trees  which  were  not  cut  back  until  the  end 
of  the  first  season,  the  average  size  of  the  leaf 
was  24  per  cent  less  and  the  new  wood  formed 
45  per  cent  less  than  with  similar  trees  cut 
back  when  planted.  The  ultimate  result  was 
found  to  be  that  trees  not  cut  back  until  the 
end  of  the  first  year  continued  to  form  wood 
in  subsequent  years,  and  the  crop  borne  by 
them  during  the  first  10  years  was  only  one- 
third  of  that  borne  by  those  which  were  cut 
back  when  planted. 

Experiments  on  apples,  pears  and  plums 
show  that  the  date  of  cutting  back  a  freshly 
planted  tree  is  immaterial,  provided  it  is  done 
before  growth  begins.  If  delayed  until  after 
the  growth  is  well  started  the  season's  growth 
is  much  reduced.  The  remits  were  the  same 
when  the  lopping  was  doneBuring  the  dormant 
period.  Lopping  toward  the  end  of  May  or  a 
few  weeks  after  growth  started,  resulted  in  a 
less  growth  during  the  year.  This  was  more 
than  compensated,  however,  by  an  additional 
growth  during  the  succeeding  season. 

While  it  appears  to  be  established  from 
these  experiments  that  the  crops  are  larger 
^nd  the  growth  of  the  tree  greater  in  propor- 
tion as  the  pruning  is  reduced,  the  experi- 
menter believes  that  another  series  of  experi- 
ments might  demonstrate  that  a  certain 
amount  of  pruning  may  be  good  and  even  lead 
to  better  results,  especially  with  certain  va- 
rieties of  apples  which  differ  largely  in  their 
habits  of  growth  and  require  different  treat- 
ment. 

The  general  conclusions  reached  are  that 
prunings  should  be  reduced  to  the  lowest 
possible  limits  consistent  with  the  formation 
of  a  tree  of  sufficient  sturdiness  to  bear  its 
crops  with  safety,  which  in  most  cases  would 
mean,  besides  the  cutting  back  after  planting, 
a  gradually  reduced  pruning  for  the  first  four  or  five  years.  Prun- 
ing after  this  time  should  consist  merely  in  the  removal  of  interfer- 
ing branches  and  unripened  wood.  With  precocious  varieties  or 


FIG.  66 
YEARLING     GROWTH 

CUT  BACK 
To  cut  back  one- 
year-old  growth  does 
not  materially  change 
the  direction  of  the 
limb,  yet  it  keeps  the 
fruit-bearing  area  low. 
Note  that  the  upper- 
most buds  have  made 
strongest  growth. 


PR 


G    PRINCIPL 


91 


should   be   greater  or    continued 
with  standard  than  with  dwarf 
desirable  to  produce  a  compact 
gins. 

e   roots   reduces   vegetative 
on)  ;  hence  it  may  be  employed 


fple  No.  6.     In  a  sense  it  is 
when  the  tops  of  plants  are 


very   weak   growers   the 
longer.     More  pruning  is 
trees,  since  with  the  sta 
head  before  heavy  crop 

87.  J.  Severe  pruning 
growths  (i.  e.,  wood  prodit 
to  induce  fniitfulness. 

This  is  th 
equivalent  t 
poorly  supp 
they   tend 
It  doe 
lack  o 
or  to 

sao  takerT*up  by, 
results  are  the 
inciple 

at  ion  in  tlier  un- 

tion  of  root  area 
of  nursery  and 

other  TflSRTs*'  for  transplanting. 
No  matter  how  cargfully  such 
work  is  perform^^  an  enor- 
mous amount  (often  more  than 
90  per  cent)  on  the  feeding 
area-^JI2)  is  cut  off,  thus  re- 
ducing y  the*  Supply  t)f  fooH 
which  <xm  be  sent  up  to  the 
s.  To  offset  this  unbalanced 

«»^  «  FIG.   67 

ditioruand  to  ^distribute  the         HOW  CROOKED  BRANCHES 

•k      ,  -     ,         «         re  ARE  MADE 

uced  Bpjjp\p£4pod  effec-        Cutting  back  second.year  growth 

tivelv,  the   tOp   mUSt  be   reduced         produces  crooked  branches,  as  the 

latter  growth  will  not  be  erect. 

very  considerably.   Some  plant- 
ers adv^ate  removing'not  less  than  three-quarters  of  the 
iar's  growth,  and  in  many  cases  all  but  one 
strong  TITO  on  that  growth.    This  tends  to  establish  a  new 
balance  between  root  and.  top. 


dy^at 
io^^^ 
nTO 


92  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

Root  pruning  is  largely  practiced  by  those  nurseries  which 
make  a  specialty  of  specimen  plants  several  years  old.  It 
is  performed  by  passing  a  large  U-shaped  knife  from  end 
to  end  of  the  nursery  rows  beneath  the  trees  so  as  to  cut 
the  long  roots  at  varying  depths.  In  order  to  secure  best 
results,  the  trees  are  set  in  check  rows,  so  the  second  cutting 
may  be  done  at  right  angles  to  the  first.  This  method  com- 
pels the  plants  to  produce  many  short  fibrous  roots  in  a 
clump  close  to  the  base  of  the  stems.  The  chief  advantages 
of  the  practice  are  (1)  that  the  specimens  may  be  traine  1 
to  any  desired  form  in  the  nursery,  where  they  may  remain 
for  several  years,  all  the  while  becoming  more  valuable ; 
and  (2)  the  extensive  root  system,  limited  to  a  small  area, 
is  not  seriously  enough  injured  in  digging  to  make  the  cutting 
of  the  top  necessary  to  re-establish  a  balance. 

Root  pruning  also  finds  employment  in  growing  dwarf 
fruit  trees  and  trees  trained  on  walls  and  in  special  forms, 
such  as  espalier  (283)  and  cordons  (282).  Unless  the 
work  is  regularly  done  the  trees  are  almost  sure  to  de- 
velop unduly  and  to  frustrate  the  objects  sought.  Its 
practice  is  mainly  limited  in  America  to  amateur  plantations. 

At  Harper-Adams  Agricultural  College*  (England)  root  and 
branch  pruning  experiments  during  several  years  stimulated  tnv 
growth  considerably,  the  effect  being  most  marked  on  the  weakest 
growing  variety  tested,  Cox's  Orange  Pippin.  The  most  fruit  buds 
were  formed  on  the  unpruned  trees. 

In  an  effort  to  make  six  espalier  pear  trees  develop  fruit  buds, 
R.  L.  Castlef  root-pruned  two  on  both  sides,  two  on  one  side  only. 
the  other  two  not  at  all,  in  January  and  February.  Nothing  special 
was  rioted  that  year,  but  the  following  year  the  trees  pruned  on  one 
side  produced  a  fair  crop  of  good  fruit;  those  severely  pruned  bad 
very  few  fruits,  while  those  unpruned  were  still  unfruitful.  One 
of  the  latter  trees  pruned  later  gave  results  similar  to  the  earlier 
root-pruned  trees. 

88.  8.  Suckers  and  water  sprouts  are  produced  b\  local 
or  general  disturbance  of  plant  equilibrium.  The  time  of 
year  when  the  pruning  is  done  has  less  influence  upon  their 

*  Report   1910,   Page  52. 
tjour.   Royal   Hort.  Soc.    (London)    29.     Nos.    1-3,    Pages   146-160. 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES 


93 


formation   than   docs   the   extent   of   the  pruning  and  the 
vigor  of  the  plant  pruned. 

As  already  noted  under  Principle  No.  6,  increased  vegeta- 
tive growth  results  from  excessive  pruning  of  the  top,  and 
water  sprouts  and  suckers  may  be  developed  to  a  greater 
or  lesser  extent.  "\Yhen  the  plants  are  below  normal  vigor 
and  when  the  root  area  is  smaller  than  the  top  really  needs, 
plant  food  will  not  be  elaborated  in  sufficient  quantity  to 


FIC.   68— ONE  WAY  HORIZONTAL   BRANCHES  ARE  KILLED 
When     wat^r    sprouts    develop    vertically    from    horizontal    branches    the    parts 
beyond  die  sooner  or  laler.     In  this  case  the  main  branch  beyond  the  erect  ones  has 
died.      One  water   sprout   was  cut   off    (see  scar  at  base  of  middle   one)    to   perm.t 
taking  a  less  confused  photo. 

produce  water  sprouts  and  suckers;  for  these  growths  are 
dependent  upon  ample  if  not  excessive  food  for  their  de- 
velopment. Hence  season  of  pruning  cannot  be  a  primary 
influence  in  their  production.  They  may  develop  as  the  re- 


94 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


suit  of  ringing  (98  to  103),  girdling,  notching,  twisting  or 
bending  the  stems,  because  in  such  cases  the  flow  of  elab- 
orated sap  has  been  checked  and  the  food  thus  held  back 
must  find  an  outlet  above  the  constriction. 

Doubtless  the  time  of  year  when  the  pruning  is  done  has 
some  influence  upon  the  production  of  such  growths.  Com- 
mon observation  shows  that  t^ey  are  produced  mainly  dur- 
ing spring.  Rarely  do  they  appear  after  midsummer,  be- 
cause by  that  time  the  plants 
are  ripening  up  the  tissues 
rapidly  formed  early  in  the 
season,  there  is  little  or  no 
food  to  spare  and  in  general 
growth  has  ceased.  Ex- 
perience also  teaches  that 
plants  pruned  in  mid- 
summer rarely  produce 
water  sprouts  or  suckers 
the  same  season  because  of 
the  cessation  of  growth  just 
discussed.  Even  during  the 
FIG.  69— POORLY  "PRUNED"  PEAR  following  spring  the  num- 

The  ends  of  the  horizontal  branches  U^.-  onH  CIVA  r»f  fVir»c#»  ixrViirVi 
were  cut  off,  with  the  result  that  a  lot  her  ancl  Slze  Ot 

of  "sap-pumping"  growths  developed.     f|o  appear  will   be   smaller 

No   care  was  given  these   new  growths, 

or    they   would    not    have    grown    nearly       than   when   pruning  IS    done 

so     long    and    spindling.       They     have, 

however,    begun    to    bear    fruit,    as    in-        dtmilg  the  dormant 

dicated  by   the  short,  stubby  spurs.  TVi"  K  V« 

have  ample  time  in  which  to  make  readjustment  to  the 
changed  conditions  in  their  tops. 

The  usual  way  in  which  any  excess  elaborated  food  is 
utilized  in  such  cases  is  in  the  increased  development  of 
twigs  already  formed.  Note  the  discussion  as  to  summer 
pruning  in  eastern  Washington  (80).  The  suggestion  to 
be  drawn  from  this  principle  is  that  the  fear  of  water  sprout 
and  sucker  production  should  never  influence  the  primer. 
These  growths  are  largely  the  result  of  previous  neglect, 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  .  95 

but  later  attention  should  prevent  their  becoming  a  menace 
to  the  plant. 

89.  Renewal  pruning  of  apple  and  pear.— E.  S.  Goff*  points  out  that 
as  apple  trees  increase  in  age  the  size  of  the  fruit  tends  to  become 
smaller.     This  he  believes  to  be  due  to  the  increased  difficulty  of 
sap  circulation  in  the   fruit-bearing  twigs.     An  instance  is  pointed 
out  in  which  water  sprouts  on  part  of  an  apple  tree  were  allowed 
to  develop  in  place  of  a  large  limb  that  had  been  broken  off.    The 
fruit  in  this  part  of  the  tree  was  much  larger  than  on  the  remaining 
older  parts.     The  question  is  therefore  raised  whether  the  size  of 
fruit  on  old  apple  and  pear  trees  cannot  be  maintained  by  a  careful 
system  of  renewal  pruning. 

90.  p.  Since  each  plant  part  is  Individual  (39),  competi- 
tion among  the  parts  may  make  one  part  thrive  at  the  ex- 
pense of  another, 

As  elaborated  plant  food  is  formed  it  passes  to  growing 
and  storage  tissues  (20).  Toward  the  close  of  the  season 
much  of  it  is  stored  in  or  near  the  buds  which  are  to  start 
growth  the  following  spring,  when,  with  crude  sap,  it  pushes 
out  into  shoots,  leaves  or  flowers.  There  is  thus  competition 
among  these  various  parts  for  a  share  of  both  kinds  of  food ; 
but  only  those  favorably  placed  or,  through  some  unex- 
pected circumstance,  such  as  a  constriction,  similarly 
favored,  secure  an  adequate  supply  of  each.  Then  other 
things  may  give  certain  twigs  the  lead  and  the  inferior  ones 
a  check.  Hence  each  shoot  draws  upon  its  parent  branch 
both  for  elaborated  food  and  crude  sap.  Nay,  more, 
each  may  steal  from  its  fellows,  as  when  very  lush  shoots, 
such  as  water  sprouts  and  suckers,  are  produced.  These 
shoots  are  seldom  furnished  with  sufficient  leaves  to  supply 
their  own  needs.,  so,  being  watery,  they  draw  elaborated 
plant  food  from  nearby  twigs  and  limbs.  For  this  reason 
careful  fruit  growers  remove  these  shoots  while  small  be- 
tween mid-spring  and  early  summer,  so  as  to  direct  the 
plant  food  where  it  will  do  the  most  good.  The  sprouts, 
being  green,  are  easily  broken  off  at  the  time  mentioned. 
The  slight  wounds  formed,  being  small,  readily  heal  in  a 
few  weeks. 

*  Am.   Card.  23,  No.  285,  Page  302. 


FIG.    70— TWENTY-YEAR-OLD    CATALPA    PLANTATION 

Note  that  the  trees  are  practically  erect  and  almost  branchless  below.  They 
have  reached  up  to  the  light,  and  the  lower  branches  have  died  because  of  lick 
of  lijjht.  They  have  either  broken  off  or  been  cut, 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  97 

91.  10.  The  uppermost  buds,  especially  on  young  plants, 
tend  to  grow  most  vigorously. 

Ordinary  observation  shows,  and  philosophy  explains 
(Chapter  III),  that,  due  to  the  fight  for  air  and  light  among 
the  twigs,  growth  is  from  the  uppermost  buds.  This  na- 
tural method  may  be  suppressed  or  emphasized  according 
to  the  way  the  plants  are  managed.  Shortening  the  annual 
growths  (106)  checks  development  and  so  does  the  forma- 
tion of  constrictions  (98).  These  two  methods  each  deserve 
separate  discussion. 

92.  //.  By   shortening   the   twigs   npo)i   which    they   are 
borne,  axillary  buds  may  be  more  fully  developed  than  would 
normally  be  the  case  if  the  twigs  were  not  shortened. 

It  stands  to  reason  that  when  part  of  a  shoot  is  removed 
the  food  intended  by  the  plant  for  the  whole  shoot  will 
reach  the  remaining  part  in  relatively  larger  supply.  But 
this  principle  connotes  still  more.  It  deals  largely  with  the 
practice  of  heading-in,  a  process  which  tends  to  broaden 
and  thicken  the  top  of  the  plant  so  treated.  One  or  other 
of  two  objects  may  be  secured  by  heading-in;  namely,  (1) 
the  correction  of  an  undesirable  habit  of  growth  and  (2) 
the  encouragement  of  fruit  production  (Principle  17,  below). 
Each  of  these  objects  may  involve  the  consideration  of  one 
or  more  of  the  following  factors:  (a)  The  grower's  pref- 
erence as  to  the  way  the  trees  shall  be  trained,  (b)  the  dis- 
tance between  the  trees,  (c)  the  nature  of  the  trees,  es- 
pecially whether  standard  or  dwarf,  and  (d)  the  rate  of 
growth. 

a.  On  the  first  point,  the  grower's  preference,  probably  no 
one  man  can  exactly  meet  the  ideas  of  another  man.     It  is 
usually  a  case  of  "what  he  likes,  he  likes."     When  a  thick, 
round-headed  tree  is  the  aim,  shortening-in  must  be  prac- 
ticed ;  when  an  open  centered  one,  it  must  be  shunned,  unless 
possibly  before  the  tree  comes  into  bearing. 

b.  When  trees  are  set  close  together,  just  as  when  their 
tops  are  dense,  the  -effort  to  secure  air  and  light  tends  to 


98 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


induce  long  slender  growth  (Fig.  70).  The  same  is  true 
in  very  humid  climates  (80).  Shortening  to  keep  the  tree 
heads  within  bounds  may  be  done  when  the  growths  attain 
lengths  of  3  or  more  feet  in  a  season,  but  since  mature  and 
bearing  trees  rarely  make  such  excessive  growths,  the  prac- 
tice is  usually  needed  only  with  unfruitful  or  young  trees. 
Excessive  growth  in  mature  trees  generally  indicates  too 
rich,  moist  soil,  or  excessive  pruning;  hence  the  remedy  is 
to  check  growth  by  making  the  proper 
correction,  or  to  have  recourse  to  sum- 
mer pruning,  as  practiced  in  Washington 
(80).  The  proper  correction  for  excess 
moisture  may  be  drainage  or  the  use  of 
a  thirsty  cover  crop,  such  as  clover  or 
hairy  vetch;  that  for  too  great  fertility, 
a  "nitrogen-consuming"  cover  crop,  such 
as  oats  or  rye ;  that  for  excessive  pruning 
is  to  avoid  winter  pruning  as  much  as 
possible.  Heading-in  during  winter  will 
only  make  matters  worse. 

c.  Shortening-in  the  annual  growths  of 
dwarf  trees  is  done  to  prevent  the  de- 
velopment of  tops  out  of  proportion  to 
the  roots.  This  feature  deserves  special 
treatment.  (Chapter  XVI.) 

In  all  shortening-in  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  increased  pruning  in  the 
interior  of  the  top  is  necessary,  especially 
when  the  work  is  done  early  in  the  growing  season.  For 
often  lateral  growths,  especially  on  summer-pruned  grapes, 
prove  a  great  annoyance.  The  method  is  useful  in  helping 
to  secure  sturdier  branches  and  to  develop  frame  limbs.  It 
need  be  employed  less  annually  as  the  trees  approach  ma- 
turity, when  it  may  cease  altogether. 

So  far  the  discussion  has  considered  the  style  of  heading- 
in  usually  practiced  by  gardeners  and  amateurs  who  sec!: 
specially  fine  specimens  of  fruit.  A  simpler  method  prac- 


FIG.    71— TYPICAL 
PASTURE  -  GROWN 

WHITE  PINE 
Note  that,  though 
50  feet  high,  the 
trunk  is  branchy 
nearly  to  the  ground. 
It  will  make  inferior, 
knotty  and  tapering 
lumber. 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  99 

ticed  more  largely  by  the  commercial  fruit  grower  is  to  cut 
out  whole  branches,  one,  two  or  more  years  old,  when  these 
extend  beyond  the  general  outline  form  and  desired  size  of 
the  tree.  In  all  such  cases  the  cuts  are  made  at  the  points 
where  the  branches  to  be  removed  join  older  or  larger 
branches.  Clean,  close  cuts  are  made.  In  a  few  years  the 
vacant  spaces  fill  up  with  bearing  wood.  This  plan  is 
especially  popular  in  the  management  of  stone  fruits. 

d.  The  rate  of  growth  is  a  factor  included  in  the  discussion 
in  paragraph  b  above. 

93.  12.  Neither  kind  nor  extent  of  pruning  influences 
fruit  bearing  as  much  as  does  the  condition  and  the  estab- 
lished habit  of  the  plant.  Quiescence  rather  than  stimula- 
tion or  spasmodic  effort  favors  the  fruit-bearing  habit, 
which  is  influenced  b\  pruning,  as  well  as  bv  other  treat- 
ment, more  in  \oung  than  in  old  plants. 

Doubtless  this  principle  is  the  most  important  of  the  score 
discussed  in  this  chapter,  not  because  it  emphasizes  pruning 
so  much,  but  because  it  teaches  the  importance  of  continuous 
good  care  of  the  plants.  This  matter  of  continuous  good 
care  cannot  be  over-emphasized.  But  it  is  not  with  these 
phases  of  plant  management  that  this  book  is  concerned: 
pruning  is  the  subject  in  hand. 

Even  casual  observation  will  show  that  plants,  even  of  the 
same  variety,  differ  more  or  less  widely  in  habit,  especially 
in  the  habit  of  fruit  bearing.  So  noticeable  is  this  fact  that 
certain  fruit  growers  and  nurserymen  favor  so-called  "pedi- 
greed trees,"  these  being  propagated  from  trees  of  known 
performance.  Doubtless  part  of  the  phenomenal  prolificacy 
is  due  to  individuality,  but  probably  a  large  part  is  also  due 
to  some  unrecognized  factor  which  favors  fruit  bearing, 
so  that  the  case  may  be  more  one  of  plant  nurture  than  is 
supposed. 

But  let  us  set  aside  such  cases  and  consider  only  average 
ones.  When  once  plants  begin  to  bear,  the  bearing  habit 
should  be  maintained.  Nothing  will  favor  this  more  than 


100  J'KIXC  II'I.KS    AM)    PRACTICE    OK    I'Kl'XIXG 

judicious,  continuous  good  management.  Whatever  seri- 
ously upsets  the  equilibrium  so  established  will  almost  surely 
also  upset  the  bearing  habit.  In  cases  where  the  bearing 
habit  has  never  been  developed,  either  due  to  neglect  or 
improper  management,  experiment  may  enable  the  grower 
to  discover  a  remedy  such  as  giving  a  different  type  of  till- 


FIG.  72 

BRANCHES  OF  l.OW-HEADED  TREES  TEND  TO  ASCEND  AT  ACUTE  ANC.l  HS 
This  drawing  from  a  photograph  shows  that  trees  started  with  low  heads  hive 
branches  that  approach  the  vertical.  Compare  with  high-headed  trees  (Figs.  3,  22>>.<. 

age,  a  change  of  plant  food,  a  better  type  of  disease  and 
insect  control  or  a  more  or  less  radically  different  style  of 
pruning. 

A  neglected  orchard  will  furnish  a  typical  case.    Suppose 
the  tillage,  spraying  and  other  factors  just  mentioned  to  be 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  JQJ 

what  they  may;  let  us  consider  only  the  pruning.  In  this 
orchard  it  is  evident  that  the  first  aim  of  pruning  must  be 
to  overcome  the  neglect  rather  than  directly  to  establish 
fruit  bearing.  Heavy  pruning  may  be  necessary  and  much 
new  wood  may  be  produced  (81,  83,  88),  and  the  tree  may 
take  one  or  perhaps  several  years  to  adjust  itself  to  the  new 
order,  but  the  rational  treatment  that  should  have  been  given 
while  the  trees  were  young  will  win  in  time.  All  will  be 
lost,  however,  if  the  grower  lets  up,  for  the  orchard  will 
quickly  return  to  its  former  undesirable  condition. 

This  last  statement  shows  why  orchards  severely  pruned 
only  once  in  several  years  are  so  notoriously  barren.  They 
are  literally  prevented  from  establishing  the  bearing  habit 
by  being  thrown  out  and  kept  out  of  balance.  Annual  good 
care  is  necessary  to  secure  good  crops.  Were  the  wholesale 
pruning  spread  out,  then,  over  several  years,  a  little  and 
often  an  equal  total  amount  of  wood  might  have  been  re- 
moved and  yet  the  trees  might  have  been  brought  into  bear- 
ing and  kept  actively  fruitful. 

One  of  the  most  common  forms  of  disturbance  of  equili- 
brium is  over-bearing.  It  is  almost  invariably  succeeded  a 
year  later  by  the  reverse  condition.  So  common  is  this 
phenomenon  that  we  have  "full  years"  and  "off  years." 
Extremes  tend  to  follow  each  other  until  the  alternate  year 
bearing  habit  becomes  established,  perhaps  so  firmly  that  it 
cannot  be  corrected,  at  least  in  old  trees.  Since  the  habit 
is  most  pronounced  in  long-lived  plants,  such  as  apple  and 
pear,  the  conclusion  seems  safe  that  the  habit  started  during 
the  early  years  of  the  trees,  and  has  been  emphasized  more 
and  more  as  the  trees  grew  older.  Though  pruning  may 
have  some  effect  in  changing  such  a  condition,  more  es- 
pecially as  affected  by  principle  No.  18,  it  is  only  one  of  the 
factors  that  may  be  influential. 

It  is  well  understood  that  a  check  to  growth  favors  fruit 
bearing,  but  this  bearing  habit  may  easily  be  lost  unless 
efforts  are  made  to  keep  it  up.  While  slow-growing  and 


K)'  PtfllN'CiPi.'KS    AND    PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

moderate-sized  trees  are  often  very  fruitful,  they  are  not 
necessarily  so.  Many  instances  might  be  mentioned  of  trees 
which  have  grown  both  very  rapidly  and  very  large,  and 
yet  have  come  into  bearing  young  and  been  remarkably 
fruitful,  perhaps  each  year,  for  a  long  series  of  years.  Such 
cases,  probably  without  -exception,  will  be  found  to  be  due 
to  rational  management  from  the  start  or,  at  least,  from  the 
time  when  the  fruit  grower  began  such  management. 

94.  Apple  pruning  investigations.*— Four  years  ago  West  Virginia 
Experiment  Station  began  a  test  involving  various  amounts  of  dor- 
mant pruning  in  one  orchard.    The  following  spring  this  experiment 
was  greatly  extended  to  include  six  orchards  in  various  parts  of  the 
state  and  515  trees  ranging  from  one  to  25  years  of  age.     In  spite 
of  unfavorable  circumstances  some  features  stand  forth  clearly  and 
seem  to  warrant  a  preliminary  report. 

We  will  group  the  orchards  and  discuss  two  phases  of  the  proj- 
ect; namely,  the  effect  of  amount  of  pruning  and  season  of  pruning 
upon  vigor,  growth  and  fruitfulness.  In  most  cases  the  following 
series  of  plots  were  obtained :  1.  Heavy  dormant  pruning.  2.  Mod- 
erate dormant  pruning.  3.  Light,  or  corrective  dormant  pruning. 
4.  Heavy  dormant  and  early  summer  pruning.  5.  Moderate  dormant 
and  early  summer  pruning.  6.  Early  summer  pruning.  7.  Repeated 
summer  pruning.  8.  Midsummer  pruning. 

The  early  summer  prunings  were  made  at  first  during  the  last 
week  of  May,  but  for  the  last  two  years  were  made  about  June  15. 
The  midsummer  pruning  was  made  from  July  1  to  July  15.  The 
repeated  summer  pruning  was  simply  a  combination  of  the  early 
and  midsummer  prunings. 

95.  Amount  of  dormant  pruning. — Where  varying  amounts  of  dor- 
mant  pruning   alone    were   considered,    we    would    expect    that    the 
heavier  the  pruning  the  longer  and  heavier  would  be  the  new  growth 
(83).     This  was  invariably  the  case.    The  question  then  arose  as  to 
whether  the  average  length  and  diameter  of  the  new  growth  is  a 
true  index  of  vigor.     We  are  constrained  to  believe  that  this  is  not 
always  the  case,  at  least  upon  small  trees. 

The  heavy  pruning  greatly  reduced  the  number  of  buds  and  con- 
sequently reduced  the  number  of  shoots  which  started.  It  seems 
reasonable  to  believe  that,  though  fewer  in  number,  the  shoots  of 
the  heavily  pruned  trees  actually  measure  up  as  great  as  those  of 
the  lightly  pruned  back,  perhaps  even  greater.  To  test  this  point, 
two  blocks  were  selected  in  one  orchard,  and  one  was  heavily 
pruned,  while  the  other  was  lightly  pruned.  Annual  measurements 
were  made  of  the  new  growth  and  the  prunings. 

*  W.  H.  Alderman  in  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  Horticultural  Science, 
1915,  Page  54. 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  103 

The  data  obtained  show  that  except  at  the  very  first,  neither  in 
total  length  of  growth  nor  in  increase  of  trunk  diameter,  have  the 
heavily  pruned  trees  made  as  satisfactory  a  gain  as  the  lightly 
pruned  ones.  The  only  possible  deduction  from  the  figures  is  that 
continued  heavy  pruning  acts  as  an  inhibitor  of  growth  rather  than 
as  a  stimulant.  In  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  no  account 
was  taken  of  the  fact  that  the  average  diameter  of  the  yearly 
growth  of  the  heavily  pruned  block  was  greater  than  of  the  lightly 
pruned  block,  so  that  the  real  difference  in  amount  or  weight  of 
actual  tissue  produced  was  not  as  much  as  indicated  in  the  table. 
It  is  significant  to  note  in  this  connection  that  in  all  the  orchards 
the  lightly  pruned  trees  are  noticeably  larger  than  the  heavily 
pruned  ones.  With  few  exceptions  the  increase  of  diameter  of 
trunk  has  been  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  amount  of  wood  cut  off. 

Thus  far  we  find  that  heavy  pruning  forces  a  rank  growth,  al- 
though it  retards,  as  a  whole,  the  production  of  wood  tissue.  There 
is  presented  an  interesting  question  of  whether  heavy  pruning  and 
particularly  heavy  heading  back,  tends  to  make  more  stocky  that 
portion  of  a  branch  produced  one  or  more  years  previous  to  the 
pruning.  In  other  words,  can  a  long  slender  branch  be  made  more 
stocky  by  vigorous  heading  in  at  the  extremity? 

96.  Effect  of  heading-back  on  stockiness.— On  the  young  trees  on 
which  measurements  were  made  to  test  this  point  the  results  were 
not  as  clear  cut  as  could  be  wished,  yet  they  indicate  on  the  whole, 
that  heavy  heading-in  tends  to  thicken  the. branch  more  rapidly 
than  does  light  pruning  [and  this  may  be  traced]  even  as  far  dowh 
as  that  segment  of  branch  produced  four  years  previously.  Thfe 
is  not  well  correlated  to  our  own  results  regarding  the  increase  in 
trunk  diameter  as  related  to  pruning.  We  frankly  admit  a  high 
probable  error  in  this  part  of  our  data  and  do  not  lay  undue  em- 
phasis upon  this  phase.  It  must  be  substantiated  by  further  work. 

In  the  matter  of  fruitfulness,  interesting  correlations  were  se- 
cured. In  the  one  middle-aged  orchard  in  the  test,  heavy  pruning 
proved  to  be  a  stimulant  to  fruit  production,  whereas  in  the  younger 
orchards,  it  acted  as  an  inhibitor. 

In  another  six-year-old  orchard  the  only  fruits  produced  were 
upon  the  lightly  pruned  block,  and  in  a  five-year-old  orchard  the 
lightly  pruned  block  averaged  85  per  cent,  and  the  heavily  pruned 
block  50  per  cent.  In  young  trees  heavy  pruning  delayed  fruit  bear- 
ing and  light  pruning  encouraged  it,  but  in  older  trees  that  had  been 
bearing  for  some  time  and  were  in  only  fair  vigor  at  the  beginning 
of  the  experiment,  the  vigorous  pruning  stimulated  fruit  production. 
Heavy  pruning  also  produced  strong  new  shoots,  but  did  not  in- 
duce as  great  a  total  amount  of  new  growth  as  light  pruning,  nor 
did  it  produce  as  great  an  increase  in  diameter  of  trunk  or  size 
of  tree. 

97.  Season  of  pruning  vs.  vigor  and  fruitfulness. — We  will  now 
pass  on  the  influence  of  pruning  at  various  seasons  on  the  vigor 
and  fruitfulness  of  the  trees.  In  every  case  either  heavy  or  mod- 


104 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE  OF   PRUNING 


erate  dormant  pruning  stimulated  a  greater  growth  than  any  of 
the  summer  prunings,  and  the  reduction  in  vigor  was  less  in  the  case 
of  early  summer  pruning  than  with  either  repeated  summer  or  mid- 
summer prunings. 

The  foliage  is  a  very  good  index  of  the  vigor  of  a  tree.  A 
careful  study  of  leaf  size,  color  and  number  was  made  in  the  Lup- 
t«m  and  the  Grimes  Golden  orchards.  In  all  cases  the  blocks  that 


FIG.  73 

BADLY    DEVELOPED    TREE    HEAD.      TOO    MANY    LIMBS    CLOSE    TOGETHER 

Never  allow  a  tree  he-d  to  develop  in  this  way.     Such  over-crowding  can  be  prevented 

by   correct,   early    pruning.      It   is    difficult    to    remedy    later. 

had  received  summer  pruning  bore  a  paler  or  yellower  foliage  than 
those  pruned  in  the  dormant  season.  This  difference  in  color  was 
so  distinct  that  there  could  be  no  mistaking  the  summer-pruned 
blocks  even  at  a  distance. 

It  is  clear  I  from  the  data  secured]  that  summer  pruning  caused 
a  great  decrease  in  the  size  of  leaf,  number  of  leaves  to  the  tree 
and  in  the  total  leaf  area  on  the  tree.  If  we  further  consider  that 
these  leaves  are  deficient  in  chlorophyll,  as  evidenced  bv  their  li^h* 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  105 

color,  we  may  readily  see  how  greatly  summer  pruning  has  decreased 
the  efficiency  of  the  food  factory  of  the  plant  (29). 

Much  of  this  loss  of  vigor  we  expected,  but  we  also  expected  a 
compensating  increase  in  fruitfulness.  In  the  old  orchard  the  data 
are  conflicting.  In  the  young  orchards  we  have  attempted  to  corre- 
late summer  pruning  with  early  bearing,  but  the  correlation  is  nega- 
tive. Merely  corrective  dormant  pruning  far  "exceeded  all  forms 
of  summer  pruning  in  bringing  about  early  bearing,  and  in  some 
cases  the  moderate  and  heavy  dormant-pruned  blocks  produced 
more  bountifully  than  did  the  summer-pruned  trees.  The  writer 
has  serious  doubts  as  to  the  wisdom  of  deliberately  impairing  the 
vigor  and  the  vitality  of  a  tree  to  throw  it  into  bearing. 

98.  /j.  A  check  which  does  not  impair  the  health  or  the 
strength  of  a  'plant  tends  to  fruitfulness. 

Too  severe  pruning,  over-tillage,  a  too  liberal  supply  of 
nitrogenous  plant  food  in  the  soil,  whether  due  to  over- 
tillage,  over-manuring,  or  the  too  constant  use  of  leguminous 
cover  crops,  all  may  produce  the  same  effect;  excessive 
wood  growth  at  the  expense  of  the  fruiting  habit.  All  but 
the  first  of  these  may  be  corrected  by  reverse  practices,  as 
already  noted  (80,  81,  83).  The  bad  effects  of  heavy  prun- 
ing and  how  to  correct  them  are  also  discussed  in  the  same 
sections. 

Other  methods  of  checking  growth,  mainly  of  very  local 
application,  depend  upon  checking  the  flow  of  elaborated 
plant  food;  for,  as  already  noted  (Chapter  II),  this  food, 
when  in  abundance,  tends  to  fruit  bud  development,  whereas 
abundance  of  crude  sap  tends  to  increase  wood  development. 
Among  the  ways  adopted  to  secure  this  result  are  notching 
the  stem  below  a  bud  to  encourage  the  formation  of  a  fruit 
spur,  and  above  a  bud  to  secure  a  long  woody  twig.  Shallow 
girdling  and  ringing — i.  e.,  no  deeper  than  the  cambium — 
favor  fruit  bud  formation  above  the  cut ;  when  through  the 
cambium  and  the  young  wood  the  girdle  favors  the  pro- 
duction of  woody  shoots  below  it,  but  generally  results  in 
the  death  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  stem  so  cut.  When  the 
girdle  is  placed  lower  on  the  branch  than  the  leafy  area, 
such  twigs  as  may  develop  must  do  so  upon  the  supply  of 
elaborated  food  stored  in  the  tissues  below  the  wound.  If 


106  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE  OF   PRUNING 

this  supply  be  small,  no  shoots  at  all  may  start.  When 
heading-in  is  employed  woody  shoots  generally  start  most 
strongly  from  the  bud  nearest  to  the  wound.  Those  which 
start  from  lower  buds  are  usually  less  and  less  strong  as 
they  are  more  and  more  remote  from  the  cut. 

99.  Stripping  trees. — A.  W.  Drinkard,  Jr.,*  reports  an  experiment 
in  which  trees  were  stripped  by  the  removal  of  strips  of  the  bark 
l/4  to  l/2  inch  wide  from  the  trunks,  beginning  near  the  ground  and 
extending  up  to,  and  frequently  above,  the  main  branches.     Several 
of  the  main  branches  were  stripped  for  12  or  18  inches.     Three  to 
five  strips  were  taken  from  each  tree.     The  strip  was  first  marked 
by  a  knife  point.     Then  the  bark  could  be  readily  peeled  from  the 
tree. 

Trees  stripped  on  April  23  made  good  growth  and  held  their 
leaves  until  late  in  the  fall.  The  stripping  wounds  heal  over  very 
well  during  the  growing  season.  The  operation  does  not  completely 
cut  off  the  movement  of  water  in  either  direction,  but  must  inter- 
fere with  it  in  some  measure,  and  the  operation  must  administer  a 
shock  more  or  less  severe  to  the  growth  processes.  Trees  stripped 
May  31  made  excellent  growth  and  the  wounds  healed  well.  When 
the  trees  were  stripped  on  June  23  it  appeared  that  the  growth  was 
noticeably  interfered  with,  and  the  stripping  wounds  did  not  heal 
rapidly.  This  appears  to  be  too  late  to  secure  the  best  results  from 
the  process.  The  removal  of  strips  of  bark  from  the  tree  trunks 
does  less  injury  to  the  trees  than  does  ringing,  and  gives  promise  of 
greater  utility  in  practice. 

100.  Ringing  experiments. — Drinkard  also  reports  experiments!  in 
spring  pruning  accompanied  by  ringing.    The  trees  showed  very  little 
if  any  effect  from  ringing  at  various  seasons  after  the  spring  prun- 
ing  had  been   performed.      The    formation   of   fruit   buds   was  not 
noticeably  stimulated,  being  about  the  same  as  in  case  of  check  trees. 
The   amount  of   fruit  set   and   the  quantity  harvested   was  not  es- 
sentially different  from  that  of  the  check  trees,  and  the  wood  growth 
was  about  the  same  as  normal.     The  trees  in  this  series  carried  a 
dense  green  foliage  through  the  growing  season,  equal  to  that  of 
the  check  trees.     It  seems  clear  that  the  influence  of  spring  pruning 
in  discouraging  the  formation  of  fruit  buds  is  sufficient  to  overcome 
any  stimulative  effect  which  otherwise  might  have  been  derived  from 
ringing. 

Maryland§  performed  an  experiment  by  ringing  crab  apple  trees 
to  induce  fruitfulness  He  found  that  ringing  or  girdling  increased 
fruitfulness,  but  he  considered  this  operation  as  a  measure  that 
could  be  applied  under  only  special  conditions. 

*  Technical  Bulletin  5,  Virginia  Experiment  Station. 
t  Ibid. 
§  Mass.  Hatch   Exp.   Sta.  Bui.   1. 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  107 

Leclerc  du  Sablon*  ringed  three  or  four-year  pear  trees  before 
vegetation  started  and  a  second  lot  after  the  first  shoots  had  formed. 
At  intervals  of  two  months  thereafter  trees  from  each  group  were 
dug  up  and  analyzed.  The  roots  of  the  pears  ringed  in  February 
contained  more  reserve  material  than  did  the  check  trees  not  ringed, 
while  the  stems  contained  less.  After  April,  however,  as  a  result  of 
assimilation  by  the  leaves,  the  roots  of  the  ringed  trees  were  much 
poorer  in  reserve  material  than  those  of  the  control  trees.  On  the 
whole  the  experiment  is  believed  to  show  that  toward  the  end  of 
winter  and  the  beginning  of  spring  the  reserve  material  goes  from 
the  roots  to  the  stems.  From  May  to  October  the  current  of  elab- 
orated material  is  from  the  stems  toward  the  roots. 

Hedrickf  and  his  assistants  have  reported  unfavorably  on  ringing 
tomatoes  and  chrysanthemums.  The  tomatoes  showed  a  loss  in 
fruit  production  and  in  the  leaf  and  root  systems  of  the  plants.  The 
chrysanthemum  plants  also  suffered. 

Paddock§  carried  out  experiments  in  ringing  grapevines.  The 
process  generally  hastened  maturity  of  the  fruit,  depending  on  sea- 
son, variety  and  conditions  of  vine.  On  the  whole  the  operation  is 
devitalizing  and  care  is  required  in  its  application. 

101.  Ringing  fruit  trees.^— The  object  of  ringing  fruit  'trees  is  to 
induce  unproductive  trees  to  set  fruit.  Briefly  stated,  the  theory  of 
the  operation  is :  That  the  removal  of  a  band  of  bark  through  the 
cortex  and  bast  of  a  plant,  at  the  period  of  most  vigorous  growth, 
does  not  hinder  the  upward  passage  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves  of 
unassimilated  sap  through  the  outer  layer  of  woody  cells,  but  does 
prevent  the  distribution,  through  vessels  in  the  cortex  and  inner 
bark  below  the  wound,  of  assimilated  food  (20).  The  effect  of  this 
action  is  to  cause  an  extra  amount  of  reserve  material  to  be  stored 
in  the  upper  parts  of  the  plant  for  the  production  of  fruit  buds. 

Ringing  plants  consists  in  the  removal  of  a  band  of  bark  through 
the  cortex  and  bast  of  the  trunk.  The  term  girdling  is  frequently 
used  to  designate  this  operation,  but  since  this  name  is  usually  as- 
sociated with  wounds  made  more  or  less  deeply  in  the  wood  [and 
since  the  operation]  results  in  ultimate  death,  as  when  a  tree  is 
girdled  by  mice  or  girdled  for  the  purpose  of  killing,  it  is  unfortu- 
nately chosen.  French  writers  use  the  phrase,  "decortication  an- 
nulaire"  (annular  decortication  or  bark  removal),  which  is  more 
exact  than  either  ringing  or  girdling.  The  object  of  ringing  is  to 
induce  and  increase  fruitfulness. 

The  object  of  the  experiments  was  to  determine,  if  possible,  the 
extent  to  which  fruit  trees  may  be  ringed  without  permanent  injury 

*  Sur  les  effets  de  la  decortication  annulaire,  Compr.  Rend.  Acad.  Sci.  (Paris), 
140;  1553-1555.  1905. 

t  N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  288. 

§  N.  Y.  Agr.   Exp.  Sta.  Bui.    151. 

$  Condensed  excerpt  from  G.  H.  Howe's  Bulletin  391  of  the  New  York  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. 


108  PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE  OF   PRUNING 

and  in  what  degree,  if  at  all,  the  operation  induces  and  stimulates 
fruitfulness. 

Ringing  should  be  performed  early  in  June  or  July,  at  which  time 
the  bark  peels  readily  frorn  the  wood,  leaving  the  cambium  in  a 
succulent  condition.  The  success  of  the  operation  hinges  upon  the 
fact  that  at  this  season  occurs  the  greatest  cambial  activity,  which 
readily  facilitates  the  rapid  formation  of  new  bark,  and  at  the 
same  time  prevents  exhaustive  evaporation  of  plant  juices.  Any 
attempt  to  practice  ringing  when  plant  growth  is  sluggish  or  dor- 
mant always  results  in  the  death  of  the  tree,  since  the  cambium, 
being  then  firm,  is  torn  from  the  woody  cylinder  during  the  opera- 
tion. A  common  pruning  knife  (Fig.  112)  or  a  sharp  pocketknife 
js  a  suitable  instrument  for  performing  the  operation. 

From  the  data  secured,  it  would  appear  that  ringing  tends  to 
ha*'*  injurious  effects  upon  apple  trees,  and  that  the  wider  the 


FIG.    74— EFFECTS    OF    RINGING    YOUNG    TREES 

1.   One-inch    ring    of    bark    freshly    removed    from    apple    tree.      2.  New    bark    over 
1-inch   ring.     3.  New   bark  over  3-inch   ring. 

bands  the  more  serious  will  be  the  injury.  It  may  be  stated  that 
the  trees  used  were  exceptionally  strong  and  uniform  in  vigor  and 
were  therefore  possibly  in  a  better  condition  to  withstand  wounding 
than  are  average  orchard  trees.  All  of  the  trees  making  a  weak 
growth  showed  smaller  foliage  and  less  wood  production.  The 
foliage,  likewise,  lost  its  color  and  fell  from  the  branches  four  to 
six  weeks  earlier  than  that  of  normal  trees.  Two  to  six  sprouts 
sprang  up  at  the.  lower  edge  of  the  wound  on  nearly  every  tree. 
This  would  indicate  that  nature  was  endeavoring  to  provide  as 
similated  food  for  the  roots  since  passage  of  such  food  from  the 
upper  portion  of  the  trees  had  been  cut  off. 

No    gain    in    productiveness    resulted    from    ringing.      The    few 
fruits  which  were  produced  showed  no  differences  in  size  or  color 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  109 

from  the  normal.  Clearly,  ringing  these  trees  seriously  injured  their 
health  without  increasing  fruitfulness.  Examination  of  the  root 
systems  showed  that,  as  a  rule,  the  ringed  trees  had  smaller,  shorter 
roots  (nearly  approaching  hairy  roots)  than  the  unringed  trees. 
Trees  low  in  vitality  had  extremely  small  root  systems. 

Early  one  June,  50  Baldwin  trees  three  years  from  setting,  were 
ringed,  bands  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  14,  16,  18  and  20  inches  wide,  re- 
spectively, being  removed  from  groups  of  five  trees  each.  At  the 
same  time  -5  trees  of  the  same  variety  and  age  in  another  block 
were  ringed,  groups  of  five  trees  each  being  ringed  with  1-inch 
wide  rings  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  4,  8,  12,  16,  20  and  24 
inches,  respectively,  above  the  ground.  In  most  cases  new  bark 
started  to  form,  but  at  the  end  of  the  season  not  a  single  tree  had 
made  a  perfect  formation  of  new  covering.  Several  trees  in  each 
lot  were  dead  and  all  others  lacked  vigor.  All  foliage  dropped  about 
five  weeks  earlier  than  from  adjoining  unringed  trees  of  the  same 
age.  The  spring  following  the  ringing  but  10  per  cent  of  the  trees 
of  both  lots  started  growth,  and  this  so  weak  that  death  resulted 
before  midsummer.  While  these  two  lots  of  trees  were  less  vigorous 
than  the  seedlings  of  the  previous  experiments,  they  were  representa- 
tive of  average  trees  of  the  commercial  orchard.  (Fig.  74.) 

From  these  experiments  it  is  clear  that  the  first  ringing  of  the 
seedlings  influenced  fruitfulness  and  caused  them  to  set  a  large 
crop  of  fruit.  The  experiments  with  the  Baldwin  trees,  however, 
showed  different  results.  These  trees,  lacking  the  vigor  and  hardi- 
ness of  the  seedlings,  failed  to  survive  a  single  operation. 

In  some  of  the  western  states  orchardists  frequently  resort  to 
the  ringing  of  their  young  trees  to  induce  them  to  bear  fruit,  with 
very  good  results.  Under  most  favorable  conditions,  young,  vigorous, 
thrifty  trees  ought  to  withstand  and  respond  to  one  operation,  but 
subsequent  ringing  is  devitalizing  and  exerts  practically  no  beneficial 
influence.  From  the  experiments  at  this  station,  the  practice  of 
ringing  apple  trees  to  induce  and  increase  productiveness  seems 
too  drastic  a  practice  for  the  good  of  the  trees.  Even  if  a  slight 
increase  in  fruitfulness  is  brought  about  it  seldom  offsets  the  injury 
to  the  tree. 

Ringing  was  also  done  on  pears,  cherries  and  plums  with  much 
the  same,  but  more  injurious  results.  It  is,  therefore,  concluded 
that  the  results  obtained  from  these  experiments  are  not  favorable 
to  ringing  fruit  trees  as  a  general  practice.  Under  some  conditions, 
for  a  limited  time,  a  more  favorable  outcome  may  be  expected. 
Hardy,  vigorous,  young  apple  trees  may  readily  undergo  a  single 
ringing  and  be  benefited  thereby,  but  subsequent  operations 
are  injurious.  Trees  lacking  vigor  are  often  seriously  injured  by  the 
practice.  The  deleterious  effects  of  the  treatment  have  generally 
been  so  marked  upon  various  plant  organs  as  to  render  the  opera- 
tion exceedingly  hazardous.  There  seems  to  be  no  regular  or 
systematic  increase  in  fruit  production.  The  gains  do  not  offset 
the  losses. 


110  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

102.  Pruning,  ringing  and  stripping  vs.  fruit  bud  formation. — In 
summarizing  his  findings  in  a  series  of  experiments,  A.  W.  Drink- 
ard,  Jr.,  says  :* 

The  experiments,  which  extended  over  tw$  years,  were  made  to 
study  the  effects  of  pruning,  root  pruning,  ringing  and  stripping  at 
various  seasons  on  the  formation  of  fruit  buds  on  dwarf  apple 
trees.  Spring  pruning  of  the  branches  at  the  time  of  growth  re- 
sumption had  a  tendency  to  discourage  the  formation  of  fruit  buds, 
but  there  was  apparent  stimulation  of  wood  growth  in  the  trees. 
Summer  pruning  of  the  branches  the  latter  part  of  June,  when  fruit 
buds  normally  begin  to  show  differentiation,  checked  wood  growth 
the  year  in  which  the  work  was  done,  and  greatly  stimulated  the 
formation  of  fruit  buds,  as  was  shown  by  the  bloom  and  the  crop 
of  fruit  the  following  year.  Fall  pruning  of  the  branches  in  No- 
vember did  not  materially  influence  the  crop  of  fruit  buds,  but 
caused  vigorous  wood  growth  the  following  year. 

Severe  root  pruning  at  the  time  of  growth  resumption  in  the 
spring  (April  23),  at  the  time  the  leaves  were  well  developed 
(May  31),  and  at  the  beginning  of  fruit  bud  differentiation  (June 
23),  when  accompanied  or  preceded  by  spring  pruning  of  the 
branches,  produced  some  stimulation  in  fruit  bud  formation.  An- 
other series  of  experiments  showed  that  the  spring  pruning  did 
much  to  offset  the  effects  of  root  pruning,  which  treatment  retarded 
wood  growth  in  the  current  and  the  succeeding  years ;  the  leaf  area 
of  the  trees  was  reduced  and  the  trees  showed  injury  from  the 
treatment. 

Root  pruning  on  April  23,  at  the  resumption  of  growth  in  the 
absence  of  spring  pruning,  did  not  give  as  much  stimulation  to  fruit 
bud  formation  as  the  same  treatment  applied  at  later  dates.  Ap- 
parently this  was  too  early  for  the  full  effects  to  be  felt  by  the  trees. 
Root  pruning  when  the  foliage  was  fully  developed,  and  when  the 
fruit  buds  began  to  become  differentiated,  in  the  absence  of  spring 
pruning  of  the  tops,  produced  very  marked  stimulation  in  fruit  bud 
formation.  At  these  three  times  the  treatment  retarded  wood 
growth  and  foliage  development  in  the  current  and  the  succeeding 
year,  and  the  trees  suffered  from  the  treatment. 

Ringing  at  various  seasons,  when  accompanied  or  succeeded  by 
spring  pruning  of  the  branches,  produced  no  noticeable  stimulation 
of  fruit  bud  formation.  At  the  time  when  growth  was  resumed  in 
the  absence  of  spring  pruning,  it  did  not  stimulate  fruit  bud  forma- 
tion. The  treatment  was  given  too  early.  At  the  time  the  foliage 
was  fully  developed,  in  the  absence  of  spring  pruning,  it  gave  the 
best  results;  however,  when  the  treatment  was  given  at  the  time 
the  fruit  buds  began  to  become  differentiated,  there  was  some  stimu- 
lation of  fruit  bud  development. 

Stripping  at  various  seasons  when  accompanied  or  preceded  by 
spring  pruning,  had  no  stimulating  effect  on  fruit  bud  formation. 

*  Ibid. 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES 


111 


The  effects  of  stripping  were  offset  by  those  of  spring  pruning. 
Stripping  at  the  three  seasons  already  mentioned,  in  the  absence  of 
spring  pruning,  stimulated  fruit  bud  formation  uniformly. 

Not  enough  is  yet  known  about  the  operations  of  root  pruning, 
ringing  and  stripping  for  the  formulation  of  rules  by  which  prac- 
tical fruit  growers  may  utilize  these  operations  advantageously  in 
their  orchards  to  increase  the  fruitfulness  of  their  trees. 

103.  14.  A  constriction  or  a  girdle  on  a  twig  or  a  stem 
lends  to  increase  and  elongate  growth  from  the  buds  nearest 
below  and  to  thicken  the 
twig  immediately  above 
(Fig.     96).       The     bud 
nearest  above  a  constric- 
tion or  a  girdle  usually 
becomes    more    or    less 
quiescent    and    often 
fruitful  (Fig.  95). 

This  principle  is  based 
upon  the  upward  move- 
ment of  crude  sap  and 
of  elaborated  plant  food 
(20).  The  influence 
which  a  constriction  ex- 
erts is  largely  propor- 
tional to  the  degree  of 
the  constriction.  When 
only  the  tissues  outside 
the  cambium  are 
affected,  the  buds  and 
other  parts  above  the 
constriction  become 
filled  with  elaborated 
plant  food  because  this 
material  cannot  go  low- 
er down  the  stem  ;  when 
the  alburnum  or  sap- 
wood  is  affected  the  up- 
ward flow  may  be 
checked  completely,  in  which  case  the  parts  above  will  die 


FIG.    75— SHOOT    GROWTH    FROM    STUBS 

LEFT    IN    MAY 

Almost  as  bad  as  winter  pruning  in  the  pro- 
duction   of   increased   quantities   of  wood. 


112 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


sooner  or  later.    This  latter  is  equivalent,  then,  to  liencling- 
in,  a  process  which  favors  lateral  bud  development  (106). 

Among  the  methods  employed  for  producing  constrictions 
are  girdling  by  wire,  cord  or  a  single  knife  cut  through  the 
bark  to  the  cambium,  and  ringing.  Bending  the  ^h  ots, 
usually  downward,  from  their  normal  direction  of  g  owtli 

impedes  the  sap  flow 
without  damaging  the 
tissues  in  any  way. 
Twisting  the  stem  pro- 
duces the  same  effect, 
but  it  ruptures  more  or 
less  severely  the  internal, 
if  not  the  external 
tissues. 

104.  75.  Obstructing 
the  sap  flow  cither  up  or 
down  the  stems  by  bend- 
ing, twisting,  notching, 
girdling,  ringing,  etc.,  is 
not  properly  a  pruning 
principle,  but  a  method 
of  training. 

The  employment  of 
obstructions  is  a  very 
petty  matter  when  com- 
pared with  the  large 
question  of  consecutive 
good  care  and  even  the 
general  subject  of  prun- 
ing. It  has  mainly  to 
do  with  amateur  gardening  where  individual  specimen  fruits 
rather  than  large  commercial  yields  are  the  aim.  Its 
employment  is  mainly  confined  to  trees  trained  on  walls  or 
trellises  or  in  special  forms,  such  as  cordons  and  espaliers. 
In  such  cases  the  grower  must  count  buds,  develop  fruit 


FIG.  76— SHOOT  GROWTH  FROM  WINTER- 
PRUNED    STUBS 

Unsatisfactory  way  to  prune  shoots  in  thick 
interior  of  tree.  Growth  becomes  worse  than 
before. 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES 


113 


spurs  and  other  twigs   where  required  and  observe  many 
other  finicky  details. 

With  grapes  some  of  these  considerations  may  also  be  in 
order,  but  the  pruning  of  the  vine  differs  from  that  of  trees 
mainly  because  of  the  natural  habit  of  the  plant.  Two 
classes  of  ideas  are  employed  in  grape  pruning;  one  which 
merely  removes  unnecessary  wood,  the  other  which  seeks 
to  train  the  vine  to  some  desired  form.  Since  the  various 
forms  differ  widely,  the  number  of  buds  left  on  individual 
canes  also  varies  widely.  Some 
of  the  principles  of  pruning, 
therefore,  play  a  less  prominent 
part  in  grape  growing  than  in  the 
management  of  other  fruits. 

105.  16.  Fruit  bearing  is  more 
or  less  influenced  bv  the  time  of 
year  ivhcu  pruning  is  done ;  sum- 
mer priming  farors  fruit  bud 
formation,  ivhcreas  ivinter  prun- 
ing tends  to  brancli  bud  and 
ivood  formation. 

Plants  pruned  during  the  d  :r- 
mant  season  promptly  endeavor 
to  make  up  their  losses  by  de- 
veloping increased  growths  dur- 
ing the  following  spring,  but 
plants  pruned  between  late 
spring  and  late  summer  usually 
have  sufficient  time  to  readjust  themselves  before  the  season 
closes,  so  there  is  little  or  no  excessive  development  of  wood 
the  following  spring.  One  reason  for  this  effect  is  that 
summer  pruning  considerably  reduces  the  leaf  area,  thus 
reducing  the  quantity  of  elaborated  plant  food.  Hence  the 
process  tends  to  weaken  rather  than  strengthen  growth.  In 
support  of  these  statements  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
suckers  and  water  sprouts  are  far  more  numerous  after 


FIG.  77 

EFFECTS  OF  AUGUST  PRUNING 
These  poor  results  are  the  best 
secured  from  August  pruning  ex- 
periments to  reduce  wood  and  in- 
crease fruit  spurs. 


114  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

pruning  during  the  dormant  season  than  after  pruning  in 
summer. 

When  pruning  merely  checks  wood  production  without 
noticeably  reducing  the  strength  of  the  pruned  plant,  it  usu- 
ally favors  fruit  bearing;  hence  the  value  of  summer  prun- 
ing of  whatever  kind,  but  especially  the  shortening  of  ex- 
cessive annual  growths.  The  best  time  to  do  this  is  when 
the  moisture  in  the  soil  becomes  somewhat  reduced  in  early 
summer,  but  after  the  twigs  have  attained  their  full  length. 
If  done  then  the  probability  is  that  the  remaining  buds  will 
have  -enough  time  to  fill  with  food  and  yet  not  have  suffi- 
cient time  to  develop  lateral  shoots.  In  actual  practice  no 
set  rule  can  yet  be  laid  down,  certainly  not  one  based  upon 
a  mere  date,  nor  can  any  set  rule  be  given  for  the  amount 
of  summer  pruning  that  may  be  done  with  safety.  Even 
trees  may  be  summer-pruned  so  severely  that  they  will  die ! 

The  only  safe  guide  is  personal  experience  based  upon 
such  factors  as  climate,  character  of  soil,  species,  variety, 
and  even  upon  the  behavior  of  the  individual  plant.  Even 
then  the  newness  of  the  practice  so  far  as  the  individual 
plant  is  concerned  will  influence  the  judgment  in  one  di- 
rection, whereas  the  accustomedncss  of  the  plant,  if  I  may 
coin  a  word,  will  influence  in  perhaps  the  opposite  direction. 
Plants  accustomed  to  a  certain  style  of  handling  from  the 
start  will  perhaps  stand  more,  though  they  may  not  need 
more  pruning  than  those  new  to  the  practice.  In  general, 
plants  trained  in  special  forms  give  best  results  when  sum- 
mer pinched  or  pruned. 

Generally  neither  fruit  buds  nor  fruit  spurs  are  formed 
on  the  pinched  parts  the  same  seasons  as  the  pinching  is 
done.  When  the  summer  shortening-in  is  done  early  enough 
for  this  there  is  increased  risk  of  getting  undesirable  lateral 
growths.  If  the  operation  is  performed  after  the  leaves 
have  reduced  their  activity,  these  growths  will  rarely  occur. 
During  recent  years  considerable  study  of  bud  formation 
has  been  made,  but  so  far  the  conclusions  have  brought  forth 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  115 

little  that  has  not  been  known  for  a  long  time  from  the 
standpoint  of  practice.  Investigators,  even  if  they  have 
not  greatly  enlarged  our  knowledge,  certainly  deserve  great 
credit  for  undertaking  such  tedious  and  painstaking  work 
as  that  discussed  above.  To  a  large  extent,  their  findings 
support  pruning  principles  based  upon  plant  physiology. 

106.  77.  Fruitfulness  may  be  induced  bv  shortening  ex- 
cessive twig  growth,  thus  favoring  the  development  of  fruit 
buds  and  spurs. 

Since  the  vigor,  the  age  and  the  method  of  handling  the 
tree  and  other  local  factors  must  be  considered,  therefore  no 
rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  how  often  or  how  much  short- 
ening-in  may  be  done  to  secure  productiveness.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  practice  tends  to  reduce  production  of  woody 
parts  it  favors  the  formation  of  fruit  buds ;  but  when  carried 
beyond  this  point  it  may  be  equivalent  to  a  severe  pruning 
and  therefore  may  actually  favor  wood  development. 

Fruit  trees  that  are  producing  1  to  \l/2  feet  of  new  growth 
annually  may  have  these  growths  reduced  25  to  35  per  cent. 
This  statement  is  general  enough  to  apply  to  cases  other  than 
the  development  of  fruit  buds.  It  includes  such  other  aims 
as  indirect  fruit  thinning,  preventing  dwarf  trees  from  ex- 
ceeding the  development  of  their  stocks,  maintaining  the  de- 
sired form  and  size  of  trees  to  suit  the  ideal  of  the  grower 
or  the  area  available.  So  far  as  fruit  bud  development  is 
concerned,  shortening-in  of  this  kind  may  have  small  effect 
if  done  only  occasionally  or  spasmodically. 

The  shortening-in  of  terminal  twigs  favors  the  develop- 
ment of  fruit  spurs  in  the  upper  but  interior  part  of  the  tree 
tops,  spurs  which  sooner  or  later  develop  blossom  buds 
(Fig.  173).  The  practice,  fairly  common  in  the  commercial 
production  of  dwarf  pears,  is  perhaps  properly  one  rather 
of  training  for  convenience  than  of  pruning  proper,  and  it 
is  doubtful  whether  or  not  productiveness,  or  shall  we  say 
income,  is  enhanced  by  it.  To  be  sure,  the  fruit  may  be 
borne  in  a  much  more  limited  area  than  in  the  case  of  trees 
not  so  treated. 


116  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

So  far  as  the  writer  knows,  no  definite  experiments  have 
been  tried  to  settle  whether  such  trees  are  as  productive  as 
others  not  so  treated,  but  grown  under  as  nearly  identical 
conditions  as  can  be  secured.  One  conceded  advantage 
shortening-in  frequently  has:  when  judiciously  perfomed 
it  tends  to  early  maturity  of  the  trees  and  consequently 
precocity  of  bearing.  This,  however,  finds  its  chief  applica- 
tion in  amateur  practice;  for  commercial  use  it  is  of  com- 
paratively minor  importance. 

107.  Pruning  at  various  seasons.— Stimulation   of   wood   growth 
does  not  necessarily  mean  increase  in   the   total  mass  of  the   trt-r. 
From  their  studies  of  this  question,  the  Duke  of  Bedford  and  Pick- 
ering*   have   concluded  that   hard  pruning   does   not   ultimately   re- 
sult in  a  larger  tree  than  does  light  pruning.     In  later  experiments  t 
they  found  that  the  less  a  tree  is  pruned  the  greater  is  its  w<  >c«l 
growth,  except  in  the  case  of  old  trees,  on   which   the  amount  of 
wood  is  increased  by  hard  pruning;  the  hard  pruning  is  antagonistic 
to  fruiting,  this  rule  applying  to  both  young  and  old  trees. 

108.  Summer  pruning  experiments   performed   by    Drinkarcl,§  at 
the  time  the  fruit  buds  began  to  form,  stimulated  the  development 
of  fruit  buds.    These  experiments  give  some  evidence  on  the  prop- 
osition,   often    expressed    by     horticulturists     and     practical     fruit 
growers,  that  summer  pruning  increases  the   fruitfulness  of  apple 
trees.     No   doubt  the  degree   of   increase  in    fruitfulness    resulting 
from    summer   pruning    bears    direct   relation    to    the    condition    of 
the  trees,  the  season  and  the  time  and  severity  of  the  operation. 
But  the  physiological  principle  involved  is  not  clear.     It  is  obvious 
that  severe  summer  pruning  reduces  the   foliage  area,  interfering 
with    transpiration   and   photosynthesis.     The   balance    between    the 
root   system    and   the   branch    system    is   suddenly   disturbed.     The 
nutrition  of  the  various  organs  in  the  tree  is  changed'  in  some  <K- 
gree  by  summer  pruning. 

Quinn,^:  who  has  described  the  various  methods  employed  in 
summer  pruning — disbudding,  pinching,  thinning,  heading  ii>.  and 
fracturing  or  twisting  of  branches — found  that  these  operations  are 
effective  in  greater  or  lesser  degree  for  conditions  in  Australia. 
Dickens**  found  from  careful  experiments  that  summer  pruning 
gave  better  results  than  pruning  during  the  dormant  season.  l'>y 
means  of  summer  pruning,  he  was  able  to  induce  fruitfulness  on 
10-year-old  apple  trees  which  had  previously  borne  very  little  fruit. 

*  Woburn   Experiment   Fruit   Farm,  Second  Report,    1900. 
t  Ibid.      Seventh    Report,    1907. 

§  Technical    Bulletin    5,   Virginia    Experiment   Station. 
J  Jour.  Agr.  and  Ind.  South  Australia,  Fig.  3:  368  to  378.     1899. 
**  Kan.  State  Agr.  College  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.   136. 


PRUNING    PRINCIPLES  117 

Goumy*  states  the  buds  on  very  vigorous  trees  may  be  transformed 
into  fruit  buds  by  defoliation — that  is,  the  removal  of  the  supporting 
leaves  from  certain  buds — but  not  all  the  buds  on  the  branch;  how- 
ever, he  considers  this  operation  very  limited  in  its  application  and 
not  to  be  recommended  for  general  practice. 

Fruit  growers  in  England  have  long  practiced  summer  pruning. 
The  consensus  of  opinion  and  experience  of  both  practical  fruit 
growers  and  scientists,  given  some  years  ago,  is  that  summer  pruning 
is  uncertain  in  its  effects,  depending  upon  soil,  climate,  varieties  of 
fruit  and  time  of  operation,  that  specific  objects  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  process,  but  that  the  operation  is  of  doubtful  prac- 
ticability. 

109.  Summer  pruning  of  apples.— In  a  recent  bulletinf  Batchelor 
and  Goodspeed  give  the  following  condensed  conclusions :  Apple 
trees,  pruned  to  induce  a  spreading  habit  by  cutting  back  the  terminal 
growth  to  lateral  branches,  produced  a  greater  annual  twig  growth 
than  trees  similarly  pruned,  except  that  the  terminal  growth  was 
untouched.  Trees  pruned  during  the  dormant  period  and  also  dur- 
ing the  summer,  produced  a  greater  annual  twig  growth  than  trees 
pruned  during  the  dormant  season  only.  Trees  pruned  during  the 
dormant  season  produced  a  greater  total  twig  growth  than  the  un- 
pruned  trees. 

Rubbing  the  water  sprouts  out  of  the  center  of  the  tree  from 
time  to  time  during  the  summer,  had  little  or  no  influence  on  crop 
production.  These  shoots  are  removed  much  more  readily  and 
cheaply,  however,  during  this  season. 

Trees  pruned  to  a  spreading  form  by  cutting  back  terminal  growth 
to  lateral  branches,  in  the  case  of  both  Jonathan  and  Gano  [the  two 
varieties  experimented  upon],  averaged  a  smaller  production  to  the 
tree  than  trees  allowed  to  assume  a  more  natural  upright  growth. 
The  ratio  of  the  total  pounds  of  marketable  fruit  for  the  two  va- 
rieties during  four  years  is  86  for  Jonathan  and  91  for  Gano  from 
trees  pruned  to  spread,  as  compared  with  100  per  cent  each  for 
trees  allowed  to  take  natural  shape.  The  summer-pruned  trees 
averaged  less  marketable  fruit  to  the  tree  than  either  the  winter- 
pruned  or  the  unpruned  trees. 

The  winter-pruned  Jonathan  trees  produced  more  fruit  than  the 
unpruned  trees.  The  winter-pruned  Gano  trees  produced  less  fruit 
than  the  unpruned  trees.  Summer  pruning  in  this  orchard  has 
proved  neither  profitable  nor  successful  in  increasing  crop  yields. 

Although  the  investigation  is  only  in  its  first  stages,  there  seems 
to  be  a  correlation  between  regular  bearing  and  summer  pruning. 
Tn  the  case  of  the  Gano  trees  the  most  regular  bearing  trees  were 
the  unpruned  ones.  Summer  pruning  throughout  a  period  of  two 
months  between  the  third  week  in  June  and  the  third  week  in 
August  produced  much  the  same  results. 

*  Recherches  sur  les  bourgeons  des  arbres  fruitlers.  Ann.  Sci.  Nat  Bot.  (Paris), 
de  Serie  1 :  135  to  246.  1905. 

v  No.   140  Utah  Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 


118  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE  OF   PRUNING 

The  above  results  may  apply  only  to  young,  vigorous  bearing 
apple  trees  of  Jonathan  and  Gano  when  planted  on  a  rich,  sandy 
loam,  free  from  seepage,  in  a  semi-arid  climate,  with  an  abundance 
of  irrigation  water  available.  These  varieties  under  the  above  con- 
ditions show  a  tendency  to  overbear  soon  after  reaching  a  productive 
age,  and  are  usually  thinned.  Summer  pruning  reduces  the  area  of 
fruit-bearing  wood,  the  vitality  of  the  tree  and  the  productivity. 

110.  18.  Twig  and  small  branch  pruning  may  be  used  to 
thin  the  -fruit  and  thus  also  favor  regular  annual  bearing. 

In  order  to  apply  this  rule  intelligently,  it  is  essential  that 
the  pruner  be  familiar  with  the  way  in  which  the  variety 
he  is  handling  produces  its  blossom  buds  (Chapter  IV). 
Otherwise,  he  may  remove  desirable  parts  and  actually  work 
against  his  own  interests.  Fruit  thinning  by  the  removal 
of  twigs  and  buds  during  winter  is  generally  a  more  ex- 
peditious and  economical  method  than*  summer  thinning  of 
the  actual  fruit.  It  can  be  done  by  more  intelligent  labor 
when  time  is  less  at  a  premium  and,  therefore,  when  better 
care  can  be  given  to  the  trees.  Its  greatest  drawback  is  the 
uncertainty  as  to  the  number  of  bloom  buds  that  will  expand, 
how  many  may  be  frozen  after  they  have  opened,  how  many 
fruits  may  fail  to  reach  maturity.  This  uncertainty  is  ob- 
viously greater  in  March  than  in  July!  Still,  many  fruit 
growers  practice  it  more  or  less  systematically  mainly  be- 
cause of  its  economy.  Generally  they  wait  until  danger  of 
frost  injury  has  passed  so  as  to  reduce  the  uncertainty  as 
much  as  possible. 

The  fact  that  thinning  the  fruit  conserves  energy  is 
strikingly  illustrated  by  the  experience  of  J.  Q.  Wells  of 
Shortsville,  N.  Y.  An  orchard,  mainly  of  Baldwin  apples, 
was  18  years  of  age,  but  had  never  borne  a  crop  when  Mr. 
Wells  took  possession.  Beginning  a  year  or  two  after,  how- 
ever, it  has  borne  20  excellent  crops  during  22  years,  the 
two  failures  being  due  to  frost  at  blossoming  time.  This 
is  the  most  striking  argument  for  thinning  the  author  knows. 
To  be  sure  the  achievement  is  partly  due  to  the  consecutive 
good  care  the  orchard  receives,  but  it  is  largely  due  also 
to  the  systematic  thinning.  If  such  is  the  record  with  the 


PRUXING    PRINCIPLES  119 

Daldwin  apple,  notorious  for  its  "off  years,"  what  may  not 
be  accomplished  with  other  varieties  ? 

So  far  as  the  author  knows,  Mr.  Wells  practices  only 
summer  thinning;  but  winter  thinning  produces  similar  re- 
sults, for  it  conserves  energy.  This  conservation  can  be  most 
easily  noted  in  apples  and  pears  because  of  the  spur  method 
of  fruit  bearing.  In  these  fruits  there  is  normally  an  alterna- 
tion of  cluster  bud  and  branch  (spur)  bud  development. 
This  is  due  to  the  demand  made  upon  the  spur  for  food  to 
develop  the  fruit,  a  demand  that  usually  prevents  the  forma- 
tion of  a  blossom  bud  on  the  spur  during  the  same  year  as 
a  fruit  is  developed  on  that  spur.  While  the  fruit  is  being 
developed  the  spur  has  only  enough  surplus  energy  to  de- 
velop a  branch  (spur)  bud  near  the  union  of  the  fruit  stem 
with  the  spur.  To  induce  annual  fruiting,  the  trees  must 
either  be  extra  well  fed  or  the  fruit  must  be  thinned.  The 
former  is  generally  not  as  certain  as  the  latter. 

One  way  in  which  annual  bearing  may  be  induced  is  to 
remove  all  the  fruits  while  young  from  some  of  the  spurs 
and  only  the  inferior  ones  from  others.  Thus  fruit  buds 
should  develop  on  the  empty  spurs  and  none  on  the  bearing 
ones,  and  an  alternation  of  fruit  bearing  would  tend  to  be 
developed  on  each  set  of  spurs ;  but  one  set  would  bear  in 
the  even  years  and  the  other  in  the  odd  years.  Thus  the  tree 
should  never  overbear  in  any  one  year,  and  the  grower 
should  always  have  at  least  a  partial  crop.  This  method,  if 
applied  while  the  trees  are  young,  requires  less  work  than 
may  at  first  appear,  because  after  once  getting  a  start  it  will 
at  least  partly  take  care  of  itself.  Whether  mature  trees 
with  set  alternate  year  bearing  habits  can  be  made  to  bear 
annually  is  .a  question  yet  to  be  decided.  Much  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  plan  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  care  given 
the  orchard. 

What  has  been  said  under  this  heading  as  applying  to 
thinning  of  the  fruit  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  thinning 
of  the  fruit-bearing  areas  of  the  trees. 


120  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    I'RrXLNG 

111.  /p.  Large  wounds  heal  according  to  conditions,  most 
important  of  which  are  the  kind  and  the  vigor  of  the  plant, 
the  length  and  position   of  the  stubs,    the  smoothness  or 
the  roughness  of  the  cut  surfaces,  the  health  of  the  wood 
and  the  time  of  year  when  made. 

This  principle  needs  elucidation  in  a  chapter  by  itself 
(Chapter  VI).  Yet  a  few  words  may  be  here  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  summarizing  the  discussion.  From  the  stand- 
point of  healing  alone,  large  wounds  heal  most  readily  when 
made  just  before  the  growing  season  opens  because  the  ex- 
posed tissues  have  but  a  brief  time  to  dry  out,  and  the  cam- 
bium cells,  very  soon  after  the  wounding,  become  active. 
However,  the  vigorous  or  feeble  condition  and  the  species 
and  perhaps  the  variety  of  the  tree,  the  character  and  posi- 
tion of  the  wound  and  the  influence  of  many  other  local 
factors  may  affect  the  healing  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent 
either  favorably  or  unfavorably. 

112.  20.   Wound  dressings,  which  do  not  injure  the  (j row- 
ing tissues,  which  are  antiseptic  and  durable,  and  which  thus 
give  physical  protection,  may  prevent  or  check  the  entrance 
of  decay,  but  they  do  not  hasten  healinq. 

This  principle  receives  separate  discussion.  (Chapter 
VIII.) 


CHAPTER  VI 


HOW  WOUNDS  HEAL 

113.  Natural  wounds  in  the  bark,  such  as  those  caused 
by  growth  in  girth,  usually  heal  quickly  and  without 
danger  to  the  life  of  the  tree.  From  what  has  been  said 
(Chapter  II)  it  is  apparent  that  the  bark  must  necessarily 
become  tighter  and  tighter  over  the  woody  cylinder  as 
the  cambium  develops  new  cells.  This  internal  pressure, 
which  often  reaches  50  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  causes 
the  rupture  of  the  bark  in  countless  exogenous  trees  and 


FIG.   78— HOW   BARK   BECOMES   ROUGH   BY  SPLITTING   AND   HEALING 

shrubs,  and  we  thus  see  the  wrinkled,  contorted  or  scaly 
stems  characteristic  of  old  trees,  such  as  oak  (Fig.  78), 
hickory  and  sycamore.  The  splitting  is  due  to  the  non- 
expansion  of  the  outmost  or  dead  layers  of  bark :  the 
wounds  are  healed  by  the  development  of  new  cells  from 
below. 

114.  Bark-bound  trees. — In   some  cases,  for  instance, 
neglected  orchards,  the  bark  may  become  so  tough,  hard 

121 


FIG.    79— CROSS   SECTIONS   OF   WHITE    PINE    (2x4)    SCANT!  INGS    SHOWING 

BRANCHES   BURIED   BY   TISSUE 

Left  column,  reading  down:  1,  living  branches;  2,  larger  ones;  3,  where  four 
limbs  started  together  while  the  plant  was  very  small,  horizontal  ones  showing 
dead  ends;  4,  similar  case;  5,  living  branch  which  started  when  the  tree  at  this 
point  was  only  two  seasons  old;  6,  similar  to  No.  5.  Right  column,  reading  down: 
1,  oblique  cut  across  dead  stub;  2,  ditto;  3,  oblique  limb  buried  but  cut  across; 
4,  dead  limb  being  buried;  5,  similar  but  at  different  angle;  6,  limb  which  started 
when  the  trunk  at  this  point  was  probably  six  or  seven  years  old,  had  a  good  chance 
to  grow  for  a  few  years  and  then  was  killed. 


HOW   WOtTNFDS  HEAL 


123 


FIG.    80— CROSS   SECTION    O.- 
PINE    SCANTLING 

Notice  oblique  erain  of  wood  ;n 
lower  knot  and  the  bark  which  the 
trunk  has  tried  to  cover.  Also 
notice  the  grain  in  the  main  stem 
bent  out  of  shape  by  knots  above 
and  below.  Compare  Fig.  81. 


FIG.  81 

DEAD  LIMBS  BEING  BURIED 
The  lower  limb  has  been  cut 
more  obliquely  than  the  upper. 
The  trunk,  is  making  a  desperate 
attempt  to  cover  the  stub,  but  the 
dead  bark  in  Fig.  80  (a  cross  sec- 
tion) shows  how  poorly  it  is  suc- 
ceeding. 


and  dense  that  the  trees  are 
often  said  to  be  "hark  hound." 
Good  cultivation,  fertilizing, 
pruning  and  cultural  care 
may  or  may  not  promote  ex- 
pansion and  rupture  of  the  hark  and  consequent  good  health. 
Where  these  methods  fail  fruit  growers  may  effect  a  change 
for  the  better  by  softening  the  hark  with  washes  of  lye  or 
soap,  or  by  slitting.  This  latter  process  consists  in  cutting 


I 

m 


FIG.    82— HISTORY    OF    A    STUB   IN    SIX    CHAPTERS 

Reading  down  (left)  1,  outside  bark  section  showing  extension  of  wood  from 
trunk  to  try  to  heal  in  the  stub  rotted  out  where  the  hole  is  left;  2,  stub  rotted  out, 
leaving  hole.  Decay  of  wood  occurred  after  the  tree  was  cut;  3,  wood  nearer  h  art 
of  tree.  (Right)  4,  decayed  knot  in  place;  5,  decayed  spot  beside  almost  hea'thy 
knot;  6,  knot  in  healthy  condition  except  for  checks — decay  not  progressed  so  far. 
In  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  each  section  is  shown  a  second  knot  left  hy  a 
stub.  In  4,  5  and  6  note  holes  caused  by  borers.  Decay  often  enters  by  such  means. 


HOW  WOUNDS  HEAL 


125 


FIG.    83— HOPING    STILL! 

This  oak  tree  keeps  the  bark  alive  around  the 
decaying  stub  in  the  "hope"  to  protect  itself  from 
the  decay  creeping  nearer  the  trunk  every  year. 


through  the  bark  to 
the  cambium  layer,  but 
no  deeper,  the  cut  ex- 
tending parallel  with 
the  direction  of 
growth  on  the  trunk 
and  the  main  limbs. 
Very  large  limbs  and 
trunks  may  have  two 
or  three  slits  made  at 
equal  distances  from 
each  other.  This  op- 
eration is  always  performed  in  spring  just  as  growth  begins. 
When  made  the  cuts  are  scarcely  visible,  but  in  a  few  days 
their  edges  will  have  spread,  perhaps  half  an  inch  apart. 

Soon  new  cells  will  develop 
from  the  cambium  and  the 
wound  be  closed  with  new 
tissue.  In  no  way  does  this 
healing  process  differ  from 
that  following  the  splitting 
of  bark  in  forest  and  other 
trees.  (Compare  99.) 

115.  Limb  connections 
with  the  trunks  of  trees. — 
Cross  sections  of  tree  trunks 
made  at  certain  points  will 
show  how  limbs  are  pro- 
duced and  how  they  leave 
records  of  their  develop- 
ment and  decline  in  case  of 
injury  (Fig.  79).  When  a 
limb  starts  while  the  trunk 
is  small  its  initial  point  will 
be  found  close  to  the  center 

FIG.     84  — MORE     THAN     THREE-  ,   ,,       fr11nl,    onrl  a«  it  crows 

FOURTHS  OF  THE  TRUNK  LOST  BY     ot  the  trunk,  and  as  it  grows 

DECAY    AND    BREAKAGE.      YET   THE        •.         -11    pn1arp-e      Tld    its 

TREE  BEARS  APPLES  ANNUALLY.    lt:  W1H  enlarge,  an( 


126 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE  OF    PRUNING 


be  covered  with  the  annual  rings  of  the  trunk.  Gen- 
erally such  limbs  are  only  one  year  younger  than  the 
trunk  at  the  point  where  they  are  produced,  but  some- 
times a  latent  bud  may  develop  several  years  later  than 
the  limb  produced  in  normal  time.  In  such  cases  the 
initial  point  of  the  limb  will  not  be  from  the  central  por- 
tion of  the  trunk,  but  from  one  of  the  annual  rings  more 
or  less  distant  from  the  center  of  the  tree  trunk.  When- 
ever logs  are  cut  into  boards  the  positions  of  the  limbs 
on  the  trunks  are  shown  by  the  knots  (Figs.  80,  81,  82). 
The  history  of  the  limbs  is  in- 
dicated by  the  condition  of  the 
knots.  When  the  knots  form  a  close 
union  with  the  trunk  the  limb  dur- 
ing the  life  of  the  tree  was  healthy 
— at  least  at  the  point  where  cut 
(Fig.  82).  When  the  knot  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  black  ring,  and  es- 
pecially where  it  is  loose  and  can 
be  knocked  out,  it  shows  that  the 
limb  was  dead  at  the  point  where 
the  board  was  cut  from  the  trunk. 
Farther  from  the  center  of  the  trunk 
there  may  be  only  a  hole  where  the 

F,C.  85-FL,CKER'S  NEST     1'"lh   haS   r°tted   back   itltO 
A   cut    was    wrongly    made      (Fig.    o2). 
Decay  spread 


at  the  elbow. 

down  the  heart  wood.  An- 
other stub  just  below  the 
center  also  decayed  and  a 
flicker  dug  out  a  nest.  This 
is  a  common  thing  in  badly 
pruned  orchards. 


116.  Natural  and  artificial  wounds 
contrasted. — From  what  has  been 
said  in  the  previous  paragraphs  it 
may  be  rightly  concluded  that 
man  may  take  advantage  of  and  improve  upon  na- 
ture's methods,  especially  in  the  making  of  wounds. 
for  if  he  will  make  wounds  in  such  a  way  as  to  favor 
healing  rather  than  decay,  he  will  increase  the  longevity 
and  the  usefulness  of  the  tree  he  so  prunes.  When 


HOW  WOUNDS  HEAL 


127 


the  mere  surface  of  the  stem  is  injured,  new  cork 
cells  will  develop  from  the  inner  bark ;  when  the  cambium 
is  reached  and  when  the  wound  is  deeper  than  the  cam- 
bium, new  tissue  is  produced  by  the  cambium  and  the 
attempt  made  thus  to  heal  and  bridge  over  the  wound. 
Outer  bark  cells  and  wood  cells  beneath  the  cambium  are 
helpless  to  perform  any  healing  function,  because  they 
are  lifeless  or  nearly  so  (Chapter  II).  In  other  words, 
when  a  limb  is  broken  or  cut  off,  or  when  it  is  exposed 
by  peeling  off  the  bark,  the  heart  wood  cannot  heal  itself 
but  must  rely  upon  the  cambium. 

117.  Callus. — The  tissue  which  is  formed  by  the  cam- 
bium and  the  inner  bark  over  a  wound  is  called  a  callus. 
Always    such    growths    begin 

around  the  edges  of  the  wound 
and  gradually  or  rapidly  grow 
toward  the  center.  In  no  case 
does  the  callus  have  any  physio- 
logical connection  with  the 
heart  wood  of  the  original 
trunk  or  of  the  limb  broken  or 
cut  off  (Fig.  83).  The  callus 
cap  has  often  been  likened  to 
the  metal  or  glass  cover  placed 
over  a  fruit  jar.  . 

118.  The     purpose     of     the 
callus  is  to  serve  as  a  protection 
to   the    tissues   beneath.      Part 
of  this  protective  function  is  to 
check  loss  of  moisture  from  the 
surface  of  the   wound,  but  its 

more  important  role  is  to  prevent  decay  by  protecting 
the  wood  from  weathering  and,  most  important  of 
all,  the  entrance  of  rot-producing  fungi  and  bacteria. 
Once  such  organisms  gain  an  entrance  into  the  heart 
wood,  the  limb  and  the  tree  so  affected  are  doomed 
sooner  or  later  to  breakdown  and  death.  When  limbs 


FIG.  86 

CANNON  BALL  IN  OAK  TREE 
Even  the  trees  try  to  heal  the 
wounds  made  by  war.  This  speci- 
men is  in  the  Jenny  Wade  mu- 
seum at  Gettysburg,  Md.  Many 
trees  still  standing  on  the  battle- 
field have  completely  buried  the 
shots  that  wounded  them. 


128 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


die  or  break  off  trees  they  leave  stubs  on  which  dust  col- 
lects and  with  moisture  furnishes  congenial  conditions 
for  the  germs  of  decay.  As  the  decay  extends  down  the 
stub  it  enters  the  trunk  despite  the  efforts  of  the  cambium 
to  cover  over  the  end  of  the  stub  (Fig.  203).  In  time  the 
whole  of  the  heart  wood  may  rot  away,  leaving  a  bee 
tree !  When  properly  handled  by  man — that  is,  when  no 
stubs  are  left — the  heart  wood  will  not  decay  but  will 
continue  to  perform  its  function,  namely,  that  of  strength- 
ening the  tree  so  it  will  bear  heavy  loads  of  fruit,  ice  or 
snow. 

119.  Rational  wounds  may  be  defined  as  those  which 
reduce  to  a  minimum  the  danger  of  killing  plant  tissues 
in  young  and  growing  parts  of  trees 
and  of  decay  in  mature  limbs  and 
trunks.  The  making  of  wounds  in 
pruning  naturally  resolves  itself  into 
a  threefold  question  —  when,  where, 
how?  It  will  simplify  matters  to  con- 
sider these  three  phases  all  together 
rather  than  to  take  them  up  separately. 
120.  Pruning  small  twigs  and 
branches  may  often  be  done  with  a 
knife  or  a  pair  of  shears  (Fig.  88),  the 
former  preferred  wherever  possible, 
(a)  Always  such  implements  should  be 
sharp  so  as  to  leave  a  clean,  smooth 
cut.  (b)  The  surface  exposed  by  cut- 
ting should  be  as  small  as  practicable 
so  as  to  favor  most  rapid  healing,  (c) 
The  cut  should  be  made  neither  too 
far  above,  nor  too  near  the  upper- 
most bud  left  to  continue  growth, 
because  if  made  too  high,  the  stub 
above  the  bud,  being  deprived  of  food,  will  die  back  to 
the  bud  and  thus  make  a  second  later  cut  necessary ;  and 
if  too  near,  the  surface  will  dry  out  and  thus  enfeeble  or 


FIG.    87 
HEART     DECAYING 

The  dark  streak 
shows  how  the  original 
seedling  grew — crooked 
— and  how  the  irregu- 
larity disappeared  as 
the  tree  increased  in 
girth.  A  broken  branch 
left  a  stub  which  ad- 
mitted decay  to  the 
heart  wood,  as  shown 
by  the  dark  streak. 


HOW  WOUNDS  HEAL 


129 


kill  the  bud.  The  amount  of  wood  to  leave  will  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  species  and  perhaps  the  variety  of 
the  plant  being  operated  upon,  those  with  open,  porous 
wood,  like  the  grape  and  the  peach,  being  cut  with  longer 
stubs  than  those  with  dense  wood,  like  apple  and  pear. 

When  pruning  small  branches  or  seedlings  in  which 
buds  or  grafts  have  been  inserted  it  is  often  advisable  to 

leave     fairly     long     „ , 

stubs  and  to  make 
second  cuts  nearer 
to  the  unions  some 
weeks  later  after  the 
tissues  have  knit 
firmly.  In  such  cases 
the  stubs  should  be 
pared  down  smooth- 
ly and  close  to  the 
cion  growths. 

Cd)  In  the  forma- 
tion of  tops  in 
young  trees,  the 
head  s  may  be 
spread  somewhat 
by  pruning  to  buds 
on  the  outside  of 
the  twigs  ;  they 
may  be  brought 
somewhat  closer 
together  by  prun- 
ing to  inside  buds ; 
raised  somewhat  by 
pruning  to  buds  on 
the  upper  sides  and 
lowered  by  pruning 
to  buds  on  the  lower 
sides.  Thus  erect  growers,  such  as  Northern  Spy  apple 


FIG.  88— CUTS  MADE  HEADING- IN  TWIGS 
A,  cut  correctly  made  not  too  close  but  with 
proper  slant  from  the  bud.  B,  cut  far  too  long. 
Too  large  surface  exposed.  L'kely  to  dry  badl  •. 
C,  too  large  an  amount  of  wood  left  above  bud. 
Will  dry  and  d'e  back  to  bud  and  must  be  cut  a 
second  time.  D,  cut  too  close  to  bud.  Sure  to 
dry  out  and  kill  bud.  Will  die  back  to  next  bud. 


130 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE  OF    PRUNING 


trees,  may  be  somewhat   spread  out,  and  sprawling  ones, 
like  Rhode  Island  Greening  apples,  raised,  and  so  on. 

121.  Fall  vs.  spring  pruning  of  twigs  and  small 
branches. — Common  experience  shows  that  even  when 
small  twigs  and  branches  are  cut  properly,  as  just  in- 


FIG.   f  9— WRONG   WAY   TO   CUT  OFF  BIG   LIMB 

Th;  leverage  due  to  the  weight  of  the  1'mb  will  almost  always  prrduce  this 
kind  of  break.  [The  tree  was  to  be  cut  dawn  anyway  to  clear  the  ground  for  a 
buiiding  !] 

dicated  (120),  there  may  be  dying  back.  This  rarely 
occurs,  however,  when  the  pruning  is  done  in  the  spring. 
Fall-pruned  twigs  very  frequently  kill  back  an  inch  to 


HOW  WOUNDS   HEAL  131 

several  inches,  because  the  exposed  ends  of  the  twigs  dry 
out  and  therefore  die  back  as  far  as  the  drying  extends, 
perhaps  even  farther.  For  this  reason  fall-planted  trees 
should  never  be  as  severely  pruned  back  as  those  set  in 
the  spring,  the  idea  being  to  leave  the  stubs,  say,  6  inches 
longer  than  they  should  be,  so  that  second  cuts  may  be 
made  at  the  desired  places  just  before  growth  starts  in 


HG.    90— PROPER    WAY    TO    START   CUTTING    OFF    LARGE    LIMB 
A  cut  should  first  be  made   underneath  the  limb  a  foot  or  more  from  the  union 
of  (his  limb  with  the  trunk.     When  the  s:<\v  binds  or  sticks  a  second  cut  should  be 
made   from   above  and  near  to   the  first.     See   Fig.  91. 

the  spring.  When  the  second  cutting  is  not  given,  the 
uppermost  bud  on  each  twig  will  attempt  to  bury  the  dead 
stub.  Whether  or  not  it  succeeds  is  immaterial,  there 
will  always  be  a  weak  spot  in  the  branch  at  such  points 
even  though  no  actual  decay  may  follow.  Healing  occurs 
most  satisfactorily  when  the  stub  is  very  short  and  the 
bud  develops  a  sturdy  twig. 


132  PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

When  branches  as  thick  as  one's  little  finger  or  some- 
what larger  are  to  be  cut  close  to  the  main  trunk,  leaving 
the  6-inch  stubs  will  be  found  a  decided  advantage  for 
another  reason ;  namely,  the  ease  of  cutting.  For  when 
branches  of  these  sizes  are  to  be  cut  with  a  knife,  as  they 
should  be,  far  less  effort  will  be  needed  if  the  branch  is 
bent  upward  or  toward  the  trunk  or  main  limb.  A  branch 
that  would  require  about  all  one's  strength  to  cut  while 


FIG.    91— SECOND    CUT    PROPERLY    MADE    IN    SAWING    OFF    LARGE    LIMBS 
This  is  the  same  branch  as  shown   in    Fig.  90.      Notice   there    is   no  splitting  or 
tearing  of  the  wood,  as  in  Fig.  89.     All  that  is  necessary  now  is  to  saw  off  the  short 
stub  close  to  the  remaining  limb. 

in  normal  position  may,  when  so  bent,  be  cut  as  easily 
as  cheese,  and  a  smoother,  neater  job  done  as  well.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  points  to  remember  in  prun- 
ing newly  set  trees. 

This  matter  of  twig  pruning  has  special  importance  in 
the  training  of  trees  as  dwarfs  (270),  espaliers,  cordons, 
etc.  (Chapter  XVII),  for  much  of  the  successful  fruiting 


HOW   WOUNDS  HEAL 


133 


of  such  plants  is  due  to  it.  In  Europe,  where  the  train- 
ing of  fruit  trees  on  walls  and  trellises  is  far  more  com- 
mon than  in  the  United  States,  the  expert  gardener  may 
cut  off  undesirable  shoots  at  his  leisure  during  the  winter, 
but  leave  stubs  several  inches  longer  than  necessary  for 
an  inexperienced  assistant  to  remove  just  before  growth 
starts  in  the  spring. 

122.  Where  to  cut  large  limbs. — From  what  has  been 
explained  (116),  it  is  evident  that  stubs  should  never  be 


TIG.   92— WRONG   WAY  TO   MAKE   A   CUT    IN    REMOVING    A   LARGE    LIMB 


left  permanently  when  limbs  are  cut  off.  It  is,  however,  not 
so  evident  how  close  to  the  main  trunk  cuts  should  be  made 
to  remove  large  limbs.  Some  pruners  contend  that  a 
slight  shoulder  should  be  left  so  as  to  expose  a  smaller 
area  of  cut  surface  to  the  air.  They  claim  that  the  saw- 
cut  should  be  approximately  at  right  angles  to  the  limb 
being  removed.  Experiments  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 


134 


l'KIN<  ll'I.KS    AM)    PRACTICE   OK    PRUNING 


try,  however,  have  proved  beyond  question  that  the  more 
nearly  parallel  the  cut  is  made  to  the  direction  of  sap 
flow,  the  quicker  will  be  the  healing,  because  all  parts  of 
the  wound  are  thus  kept  in  close  connection  with  the 
downward  flow  of  elaborated  sap.  The  objection  that 
the  wound  thus  made  must  almost  always  be  larger  than 
in  the  other  case  is  discounted  by  the  better  results  se- 
cured in  healing.  To  make  this  matter  emphatic,  the 
principle  mav  be  laid  down  that  no  part  of  an  amputated 

branch  should  extend  be- 
yond the  trunk  from 
which  the  branch  has 
been  cut. 

123.  Time  to  cut  off 
large  limbs.  —  From  nu- 
merous experiments  it 
has  been  deduced  that  the 
time  of  year  when  a 
wound  is  made  is  a  very 
minor  factor  to  consider 
in  pruning.  No  one  sea- 
son invariably  gives  best 
results.  It  must  be 
noted,  however,  that  m> 
healing  can  occur  while 
the  cambium  is  inactive, 
as  in  late  fall,  winter  and 
perhaps  also  during  pro- 
tracted dry  weather. 
This  statement  has 
special  force  in  very  cold, 
dry  climates,  because 
the  exposed  tissues  will 
probably  dry  out  seri- 
ously. In  all  fall  and 
winter  pruning,  par- 
ticularly of  large  limbs,  the  cambium  and  the  bark  have 


FIG    93 
RIGHT    WAY    TO    MAKE     PRUN  NG    CUT 


HOW  WOUNDS   HEAL 


135 


a  tendency  to  die  around  the  margins  of  wounds  even  to 
the  extent  of  loosening  the  bark.  Unquestionably  such 
drying  is  a  hindrance  to  healing.  Another  point  against 
pruning  at  that  season  is  that  the  exposed  wood  is  sure  to 
check  more  severely  than  if  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  a 
shorter  time  and  during  a  period  of  the  year  when  the 
*ap  flow  is  more  active. 


FIG.  94— SAD   EFFECTS  OF  SLEET  STORM 

This  Norway  maple  is  one  of  several  seriously  injured  by  a  recent  storm  at 
State  College,  Pa.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  pruning  or  training  could  have  prevented  in- 
jury in  this  particular  case,  for  the  limbs  are  practically  all  broken  where  there  were 
no  bad  crotches  or  decayed  parts.  The  Norway  maple  seems  to  be  specially  weak. 

But  how  about  pruning  during  the  growing  season?  Is 
there  no  objection  to  it?  Yes — a  theoretical  one,  at 
least.  It  is  claimed  that  pruning  in  spring  and  early 


136 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


summer  favors  "bleeding"  from  the  exposed  surface. 
The  author,  though  he  has  looked  for  instances  and  has 
searched  horticultural  literature,  knows  of  only  one  case, 

that  reported  by  Newman 

15),  to  support  this  claim 
that  plants  which  "bleed" 
when  cut  are  injured  there- 
by. Grapevines,  maples, 
Japanese  walnuts,  box  eld- 
ers and  many  other  woody 
plants  bleed  profusely  when 
wounded,  especially  in 
early  spring.  But  these 
trees  appear  to  suffer  no  in- 
jury from  the  process.  Yet 
one  well  authenticated  case, 
such  as  that  of  Newman's, 
supports  the  contention  that 
injury  does  result  from 
such  cutting.  It  is  there- 
fore well  to  err  on  the  safe 
side  and  avoid  cutting  after 
or  just  before  growth  of 
such  plants  starts. 

As  the  result  of  several 
series  of  experiments  in 
pruning  trees  during  every 
month  in  the  year,  it  has  been 
concluded  that  season  is  of 
far  less  consequence  than 
the  length  of  the  stub  and 
the  position  of  the  wound 
with  respect  to  the  trunk 

from  which  the  limb  was  removed.  Of  these  two,  the  latter 
is  the  more  important.  Wounds  on  actively  growing 
limbs  heal  most  quickly,  and  when  the  limbs  are  erect 
or  nearly  so.  the  healing  is  quicker  than  on  horizontal 


FIG.   95 

LABEL  WIRE   MAKES  GIRDLED  LIMB 
BLOOM  PREMATURELY 


HOW  WOUNDS  HEAL  137 

or  nearly  horizontal  limbs.  Contrary  to  popular  belief 
that  it  is  not  wise  to  prune  limbs  that  are  frozen  solid,  ex- 
periments have  shown  that  the  mere  frozen  condition  has 
no  influence  except, perhaps, as  noted  by  Lewis  (159).  As 
a  summary  of  all  the  experiments  as  to  season  of  pruning, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  best  time  to  prune  is  during  the 
six  or  eight  weeks  that  precede  the  resumption  of  growth 
in  spring. 

124.  How  to  remove  large  limbs. — Next  to  making  a 
wound  in  the  correct  position  is  the  importance  of  mak- 
ing the  surface  smooth ;  for  a  smooth  surface  will  not 
favor  the  development  of  fungi  and  bacteria  to  the  same 
extent  as  will  a  rough  or  splintered  surface.  It  is  folly 
to  remove  a  large  limb  with  one  cut,  even  if  that  cut  is 
made  in  the  ideal  position.  The  leverage  of  the  limb  will 
surely  split,  splinter  or  tear  the  trunk  more  or  less  seri- 
ously (Figs.  89,  92).  Safety  lies  in  making  three  cuts,  the 
first  on  the  lower  side  of  the  limb  and  at  a  distance  of  a  foot 
or  more  from  the  main  trunk,  the  second  on  the  upper  or 
opposite  side  of  the  limb  and  close  to  the  first  cut  (Fig. 
90),  the  third  close  to  the  trunk  where  the  final  wound  is 
to  be  (Figs.  91,  93).  In  making  the  first  cut  it  will  not 
be  long  ere  the  saw  will  bind  or  stick.  When  this  occurs 
the  second  cut  is  started.  Often  before  the  second  cut 
reaches  the  first  the  limb  will  fall,  leaving  a  stub  which 
can  be  easily  removed  at  the  proper  point  when  the  third 
cut  is  made  close  to  the  trunk. 


CHAPTER  VII 


PREVENTION  AND   REPAIR  OF   MECHANICAL 
INJURIES 

125.  Kinds  of  injuries. — Casual  observation  will  show 
tha:  trees  suffer  from  many  kinds  of  mechanical  injuries. 
Storms,  particularly  of  sleet  (Fig.  94)  and  those  which 
arrive  while  the  trees  are  loaded  with  fruit,  cause  serious 
breakage  of  branches,  but  such  injuries  usually  resolve 
themselves  into  cases  of  a  simple  pruning.  The  injuries 
here  to  be  considered  are  those  mainly  due  to  the  igno- 
rance or  the  carelessness  of  the  planter  or  to  animals,  such 

as  hogs,  rabbits,  mice  and 
hired  men.  Many  of  these 
injuries  may  be  easily  pre- 
vented and  cured.  Several 
typical  cases  will  be  con- 
sidered here.  The  reader 
may  also  refer  to  the  chap- 
ter on  tree  surgery  for  the 
treatment  of  a  different  class 
of  injuries. 

126.  Label  wire  injuries 
are  very  common  (Figs.  95. 
9(5)  ,50  are  those  caused  by  ty- 
ing trees  too  tightly  to  stakes 

3^3  and  by  fastening  guy  wires 

and  ropes  around  trunks  and 
branches  (Fig.  313).  The 
effect  is  the  same  in  all  cases. 
Wire  fences  often  injure  tree 
trunks  more  or  less  when  fastened  to  them  (Fig.  309  C),  but 
usually  such  injuries  extend  only  part  way  around  the 
trunks.  Instances  are  recorded  where  the  growth  of  such 

138 


FIG.  96— A  WIRE  GIRDLED  THIS 
CHERRY  TREE 


PREVENTION  AND  REPAIR  OF  MECHANICAL  INJURIES    139 


trees  as  poplar  has  extended  over  even  board  fences  fastened 
to  them.  Figure  97  shows  an  oak  tree  which  has  grown 
around  the  end  of  a  bench  at  Hunter's  Park,  Pennsyl- 
vania.* Label  wire  injuries  are  always  due  to  careless- 
ness or  ignorance.  At 
planting  time  the  wire 
is  left  encircling  the 
trunk  of  the  newly  set 
tree.  Because  it  is 
loose  it  looks  harmless, 
but  when  the  tree 
grows  it  soon  begins  to 
cut  the  trunk  and  to 
check  the  flow  of  elab- 
orated sap  from  the 
leaves  downward.  Cop- 
per wire,  the  kind  usu- 
ally employed  by  nurs- 
erymen, is  especially 
pernicious  because  it 
lasts  much  longer  than 
does  iron  or  string. 
\Vhen  the  wire  is  on 
the  main  trunk  its  in- 
jury may  be  so  severe 
as  to  kill  the  tree; 
when  on  a  branch,  it 
may  cause  an  abnormal 
development  (Fig.  95). 
Generally  the  trunk 
becomes  larger  above  than  below  the  girdle  (Fig.  96)V 

Label  wire  and  other  girdles  are  not  necessarily  fatal 
to  the  trees  so  injured   (-Fig.  96).     As  long  as  the  sap 

*  A  similar  case   is  pictured  in  Popular  Mechanics,  March,   1916.     In  this    case 
the   trees   grew   around  the  boards  of  a   fence. 


FIG.  97          .  ; 

BENCH    SUPPORTED    BY    LIVING    TREE 

Originally  there  were  upright  supports 
beneath  the  bench,  but  these  have  rotted, 
away.  The  board,  not  being  in  contact  .with 
the  soil  and  being  quickly  dried  after, rains,, 
continued  sound  and  rigid.  The  bark  there- 
fore grew  around  the  end  as  seen.  The  tree 
at  the  other  end  of  this  bench  shows  similar 
growth,  and  on  its  opposite  side  shows  where, 
another  board  was  similarly  buried  but  has. 
been  destroyed  by  fire,  leaving  a  slot  4  inches 
deep  where  the  bench  originally  met  the  trunk. 


140 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


continues  to  flow  upward  there  is  a  chance  that  the  parts 
of  the  stem  above  and  below  the  girdle  will  unite  and 
form  new  conduits  for  elaborated  food  to  reach  the  parts 
below  the  girdle,  especially  the  roots.  The  season  when 
the  injury  occurs  has  much  to  do  with  the  healing. 

Girdles  which  occur  in 
spring  may  be  healed  by 
autumn  ;  those  made  in  late 
summer,  fall  and  early 
winter  may  cause  such  loss 
of  moisture  that  the  inner 
bark,  the  cambium  and  the 
sap-wood  may  die  at  the 
point  of  girdling  and  the  tree 
die  before  spring.  This 
furnishes  a  hint  as  to  killing 
trees  by  girdling:  do  the 
work  in  late  summer  and 
make  the  cut  below  the  san- 
wood. 

127.  Prevention  of  crotch 
splitting. — It  is  far  easier 
to  prevent  than  to  cure  the 
splitting  of  a  Y-crotch. 
Nursery  trees,  which  have 
two  branches  of  practical  1y 
equal  size,  especially  if  both 
are  almost  vertical,  and 
thus  form  an  acute  angle. 
are  sure  to  break  later  be- 
cause the  leverage  will  crack 
the  bark  and  allow  decay  to 
enter  and  weaken  the 
union  (Fig.  98).  As  the  leverage  increases  and  the  decay 
descends  farther  into  the  trunk  the  union  becomes  so 
weak  that  one  or  both  the  branches  will  break  and  thus 
ruin  the  tree.  Nursery  and  other  young  trees  with  Y- 


FIG.    98— HOW   TO   HANDLE  YOUNG 

FORKED    TREE 

When  limbs  occur  below  the  natural 
head  they  should  be  cut  off  as  close  to 
the  trunk  as  possible,  unless  they  are 
so  large  that  the  cut  will  make  a  dan- 
gerous wound.  Then  they  should  be 
shortened  to  a  few  inches  to  prevent 
their  making  much  growth  and  the  stubs 
removed  the  following  season.  In  this 
case  the  branch  cut  to  a  stub  would 
have  formed  a  Y-crotch.  Had  there 
been  no  good  head  above,  the  cutting 
back  would  have  allowed  *  new  limb  to 
form.  (See  text.) 


PREVENTION   AND  REPAIR  OF   MECHANICAL  INJURIES    141 


crotches  may  be  treated  in  three  ways  to  prevent  split- 
ting, (a)  One  of  the  branches  may  be  completely  cut 
off  at  planting  time  or  while  still  small.  Doubtless  this 
is  generally  the  safest  and  most  satisfactory  method 
because  it  disposes  at 
once  of  all  possibility 
of  breakage,  (b)  One 
of  the  branches,  the 
smaller  usually  pre- 
ferred, may  be  cut  back 
severely  so  as  to  make 
it  develop  into  a  side 
branch  rather  than  in- 
to a  leader.  Often 
this  is  an  effective  plan, 
especially  if  the  prun- 
ing be  such  as  to  spread 
the  tree  and  make  the 
side  branch  less  erect 
than  it  would  be  as  a 
leader,  (c)  The  third 
method  applies  or 
should  apply  only  when 
the  Y-crotch  has  not 
been  treated  as  above 
suggested,  but  has  been 
allowed  to  grow  for  a 
year  to,  say,  perhaps, 
ten  years.  A  brace  of 
living  wood  may  be  de- 
veloped between  the  two 
arms  of  the  Y  so  as  to 
form,  when  finished,  an 
inverted  capital  letter  A. 

Usually  the  best  way  to  secure  such  a  brace  is  by 
twining  together  two  living  branches  produced  by  op- 
posite arms  of  the  Y.  Preferably  each  branch  should  be 


FIG.  99— HISTORY  OF  A  CROTCH  SPLIT 
These  sections  of  a  black  cherry  limb  show 
the  progress  of  decay  downward  between  the 
branch  and  the  main  trunk.  In  the  top  sec- 
tion the  decay  has  progressed  to  the  extent 
of  separating  the  two  parts — not  so  much  as 
shown,  but  with  a  distinct  cleavage.  The 
middle  and  lower  sections  show  the  decay 
working  downward  at  the  discolored  spot  on 
each. 


142 


PRINCIPLES   A.\D    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


growing  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  arm;  that  is,  each  branch 
should  grow  toward  the  op- 
posite arm  and  at  approximately 
the  same  distance  from  the 
acute  angle  of  the  Y,  say,  2  to 
4  or  5  feet.  Each  branch  should 
be  long  enough  to  extend  a  foot 
or  more  beyond  the  arm  on  the 
opposite  side.  It  will  also  be 
an  aid  if  the  arms  of  the  Y  are 
drawn  somewhat  closer  to- 
gether (an  inch  or  two)  than 
they  normally  stand,  and  kept 
in  this  position  for  two  or  more 
years — until  the  branches  have 
grown  together. 

The  principle  upon  which 
this  method  is  based  is  that  the 
intertwined  branches  will  unite 
by  natural  graftage.  As  soon  as  the  graft  union  is  com- 
plete the  tips  of  the  branches  may  be  shortened  little  by 
little  annually  and  finally  cut  off  close  to  the  arms  of 
the  Y.  It  is  advisable  to  leave  as 
many  leafy  twigs  as  possible  on  the 
intertwined  branches,  but  to  re- 
move these  little  by  little  in  spring, 
beginning  with  the  largest,  as  the 
union  of  the  two  branches  becomes 
stronger.  The  finished  brace  will 
more  or  less  resemble  the  one 
shown  in  Figure  104. 

When  only  one  branch  can  be 
secured  to  form  the  brace,  it  may 
be  grafted  to  the  opposite  arm.  The 
branch  selected  should  be  well 
ripened  when  used.  This  grafting 


FIG.  100— TRIPLE  Y-CROTCH 
This  badly  neglected  tree  is 
triply  weak  because  of  the  three 
Y-crotches.  It  is  doomed.  Several 
large  branches  have  been  cut  off. 
Two  scars  show. 


FIG.   101 

SAVING  A  Y-CROTCH 
Pine  2  x  4-inch  scantling 
with  telegraph  wire  is  here 
used.  This  is  better  thin 
wire  alone,  but  is  not  very 
effective  because  there  is  too 
much  "give."  The  limbs 
should  be  bolted  together 
higher  up. 


PREVENTION  AND  REPAIR  OF  MECHANICAL  INJURIES    143 

is  of  the  simplest  nature.  In  spring  the  cambium  on 
both  branch  and  arm  may  be  exposed  by  a  small  cut  on 
each.  The  two  cut  surfaces  may  then  be  brought  in  close 
contact,  fastened  so  firmly  that  there  will  be  no  motion, 
and  then  covered  with  grafting  wax. 

Each  year  the  binding  rope  should  be  loosened  to  pre- 
vent girdling  of  the  arm.  Probably  in  three  to  five  years 
the  union  will  be  complete  and  the  tip  of  the  branch  may 
be  cut  off  close  to  the  arm.  A  modification  of  this  method, 
applicable  to  Y  arms  of  rather  large  diameter,  is  to  bore 


FIG.    102— SPLITTING   OF  PEACH   TREE    WHERE   THE   TOP  WAS  IMPROPERLY 
FORMED  WITH  A  Y-CROTCH 

a  hole  through  one  arm  for  the  branch  from  the  other  arm 
to  pass  through  and  beyond.  Tying  and  waxing  as  above 
recommended  are  advisable  in  this  case  also. 

127a.  Grafting  wax.* — "The  resin  and  beeswax  waxes 
are  all  started  alike ;  the  materials  previously  made  into 
small  lumps  may  all  be  placed  in  the  pot  together,  but 
preferably  the  resin  is  melted  over  a  very  gentle  fire  first 
and  the  other  ingredients  added.  Boiling  must  be  avoided. 
After  stirring  to  make  uniform,  the  melted  mixture  is 
poured  into  a  tub  of  cold  water  and  flattened  out  so  it 
will  cool  evenly.  When  cool  enough  to  handle,  it  is 

*  Kains,  Plant  Propagation,  Greenhouse   and   Nursery  Practice,  Page  222, 


144 


PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF   PRUNING 


kneaded  and  pulled  till  the  color  resembles  molasses 
taffy.  To  prevent  its  sticking  to  the  skin,  the  hands  are 
kept  greasy.  Should  lumps  occur  (because  of  improper 
handling),  it  may  be  re-melted  and  re-cooked.  Usually 
the  wax  is  made  into  balls  or  sticks  for  convenient  use. 
It  will  keep  indefinitely.  Linseed  oil  for  making  grafting 
waxes  must  be  free  from  adulterations  such  as  cottonseed 

oil."  Favorite  formulae  are  as 
follows  :  Resin  3  pounds,  bees- 
wax 3  pounds,  tallow  2  pounds ; 
a  cheaper  wax :  Resin  4  pounds, 
beeswax  2,  tallow  1 ;  resin  4, 
beeswax  2,  linseed  oil  1  pint — • 
increase  oil  for  softness;  resin 
6,  beeswax  2,  linseed  oil  1  pint. 
128.  Bridge  or  repair  graft- 
ing,* sometimes  erroneously 
called  inarching,  may  be  the 
means  of  saving  valuable  trees 
which  have  been  injured  by 
mice,  rabbits,  hogs,  human 
carelessness  or  accident. 

Unless  the  girdle  has  cut 
through  the  sap-wood  it  is  an 
error  to  say  that  bridge  graft- 
ing is  necessary  to  establish 
connection  between  root  and 
top,  for  the  upward  current  of 
sap  passes  through  the  sap- 
wood  and  not  through  the  bark.  It  is  correct,  however,  to  say 
that  the  bridge  establishes  a  connection  between  top  and  root, 
for  the  downward  flow  of  elaborated  sap  is  through  the 
bark  layers.  As  soon  as  the  wound  is  discovered  the 
operation  should  be  performed.  If  the  injury  occurs  in 
winter  the  wound  should  be  protected  to  prevent  drying. 


FIG.     103— ONE     WRONG     WAY 

TO  MEND  Y-CROTCH 
The  Y  split  because  of  over- 
load of  fruit,  but  the  owner 
brought  it  back  to  place  with 
tackles  and  put  a  chain  around  the 
arms.  Growth  is  burying  the 
chain.  Notice  the  attempts  of  the 
tree  to  heal  the  wounds  made  by 
the  cutting  of  limbs.  The  interior 
of  the  trunk  is  decayed  badly  be- 
cause of  wrong  methods  of  cut- 
ting branches. 


•Quoted   from   the    author's   book,   Plant    Propagation,   Greenhouse    and   Nursery 
Practice. 


PREVENTION   AND  REPAIR  OF  MECHANICAL  INJURIES    145 

In  spring  when  the  buds  begin  to  swell  the  grafting 
should  be  done.  The  operation  is  performed  as  follows : 
The  injured,  and  perhaps  dry  bark,  on  both  upper  and 
lower  edges  of  the  wound  is  pared  back  to  living  tissue. 
Several  cions  are  cut  long  enough  to  extend  a  little  be- 


no.    104— LIVING   WOOD   BRACE   BETWEEN   TRUNK   AND   LIMB   OF   NORWAY 
MAPLE.     SHOULD    HAVE   BEEN   MADE   HIGHER    UP   TO   BE   STRONGER 

yond  these  trimmed  edges,  and  inserted  beneath  the 
bark  both  above  and  below,  thus  making  little  "bridges" 
across  the  gap.  The  ends  of  the  cion  are  cut  obliquely, 
to  insure  fitting  of  the  cambium  layers  of  cions  and  trunk. 
It  is  often  a  help  to  bow  the  cions  outward  slightly,  be- 
cause the  spring  thus  formed  aids  in  holding  them  in 
place.  But  these  and  other  minor  details  may  be  left  to 
individual  preference.  If  placed  an  inch  or  so  apart 
around  the  trunk,  enough  cions  should  succeed  to  save 
the  tree.  Both  wound  and  cions  should  be  completely 
covered  with  grafting  wax,  preferably  made  warm  so  as 


146 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


to  fit  into  every  chink  and  thus  exclude  air  and  water. 
In  a  few  years  the  cions  will  grow  together  and  in  time 
lose  their  identity  in  a  smooth  trunk. 

Bridge  grafting  is  a  makeshift  method  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  proper  protection  of  trunks  by  keeping  ani- 
mals out  of  the  orchard,  by  avoiding  accumulation  of 
grass,  straw,  etc.,  in  which  mice  might  form  nests,  and 
by  using  trunk  protectors — splints,  tarred  or  building 

paper,  but  preferably  half- 
inch  galvanized  hardware 
cloth  —  around  the  trunks 
until  the  trees  have  de- 
veloped rough  bark.  Such 
methods  will  prevent  the 
necessity  of  bridge  grafting 
except  in  cases  of  unusual 
accident. 

When  the  girdles  are 
narrow — say  only  one  to 
three  inches  —  no  bridging 
rnay  be  necessary.  In  such 
cases,  however,  it  is  well  to 
err  on  the  safe  side  by 
105— WELL-BRANCHED  LOW-  coverins"  the  wound  with 

HEADED   PEACH  wuum 

grafting  clay  (half  clay  and 
fresh  cow  manure)  and 
bandaging  this  in  with  cotton  cloth,  or  by  using  grafting 
wax.  Often  such  wounds  will  heal  over  in  a  single  season. 
129.  Pruning  tools  of  many  styles  are  upon  the  market, 
but  many  of  them  are  of  small  utility  and  some  worse 
than  useless,  positively  harmful.  Of  course  the  tool 
equipment  will  vary  with  the  man  and  with  the  type  of 
work  to  be  done.  In  general,  however,  the  kit  will  con- 
sist of  a  knife,  a  pair  of  hand  shears  and  two  or  three 
different  types  and  sizes  of  saws.  If  there  is  to  be  much  head- 
ing back  of  side  branches  out  of  hand  reach  a  pole  primer 
(Figs.  106  to  108)  may  be  added,  and  for  removing  dead 


FIG. 


No   danger    of   splitting    from    even 
heavy  load 


FIG.    106— MISCELLANEOUS    PRUNING   TOOLS 

a,  Waters'  tree  pruner;  b,  stronger  pattern;  c,  d,  e  and  /  four  styles  of  branch 
loppers — all  clumsy;  g,  pruning  spud  and  hook  for  brambles;  h,  raspberry  hook; 
(',  combined  saw  and  lopper;  /',  pole  chisel;  k,  combined  saw  and  chisel;  I,  m, 
lopping  shears;  n  and  o,  trunk  scrapers. 


148 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE  OK    PRUNING 


blackberry  canes  from  the  stools  a  hook  primer  also 
(Fig.  106  h).  Even  the  best  pole  pruner  does  poor  work 
except,  perhaps,  in  heading-in,  and  then  the  work  itself 
is  inferior  to  that  done  by  the  shears,  the  knife  and  the 
saw,  but  these  cannot  be  used  without  taking  too  much 
time  to  reach  the  parts  to  be  removed.  The  pole  pruner 
simply  cannot  be  constructed  or  used  so  as  to  make  a  cut 
properly. 


\ 


FIG.  107— POLE  SHEARS  FOR  OUTSIDE  BRANCH  PRUNING 
No.  1.  Good  shear,  simple,  strong.  The  most  satisfactory  pole  shear.  Inex- 
pensive. No.  2.  Double  lever  in  shear.  No  better  than  No.  1.  Has  more  parts 
to  get  out  of  order.  No.  3.  Old  type  of  "Waters'  "  shear.  Double  guard  prevents 
close  cutting,  leaves  a  bruise  and  often  becomes  choked  with  wood  and  bark. 
No.  4.  Good  shear,  but  the  long  arm  is  clumsy.  A  very  good  shear  to  transport 
because  the  pole  is  detachable.  No.  5.  Objectionable  double  guard  and  clumsy  arm. 
No.  6.  Very  awkward  and  clumsy.  Inefficient  and  much  too  expensive. 

Next  to  the  pole  pruner  the  knife  will  be  used  least 
of  the  general  equipment  because  the  shears  are  quicker, 
yet  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  because,  for  certain  work, 
such  as  pruning  side  shoots  off  young  tree  trunks,  noth- 
ing will  take  its  place.  The  pruning  knife  should  be  stout, 
the  blade  made  of  the  best  steel  and  kept  always  very 
sharp.  For  this  reason  the  style  which  permits  the  re- 


PREVENTION  AND  REPAIR  OF  MECHANICAL  INJURIES    149 

moval  and  replacement  of  blades  in  the  one  handle  offers 
special  advantage  where  a  large  amount  of  pruning  must 
be  done.  It  saves  time  going  to  and  from  the  tool  house 
and  investment  in  knives.  Fig.  112  shows  popular  styles 
of  pruning  knives. 

Pruning  shears  will  be  used  a  hundred  times  where  the 
tree  pruncr  is  used  once,  and  at  least  a  score  of   times 


FIG.    108— POLE  SHEAR    PRUNERS,   SLIDING    HANDLE    TYPE 

Nos.  1  and  2.  Reverse  or  U-type.  Not  as  handy  in  use  as  common  hook  type. 
No.  3.  Satisfactory  light  type.  No.  4.  Powerfully  made  and  cuts  fairly  well,  but 
the  head  is  extremely  heavy.  Undesirable.  No.  5.  Objectionable  double  guard 
style.  Pole  seriously  weakened  by  the  peculiar  lever  device.  No.  6.  Double  shear 
type  devised  for  light  work.  Pole  weakened  by  peculiar  lever  device. 

to  the  knife.  It  is  of  especial  use  in  pruning  trees  up  to 
the  age  of  five  or  six  years  for  the  removal  of  branches 
up  to  say  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  Many  makes  are 
for  sale,  some  of  them  excellent.  Points  to  bear  in  mind 
when  choosing  a  pair  are  to  have  first-class  steel  in  the 
blade,  because  a  keen  edge  is  necessary  to  do  good  work 
and  prevent  injury  to  the  parts  to  be  left  on  the  plant. 
Next,  the  shears  should  be  free  working,  with  a  good 
spring  to  6pen  them  promptly  after  making  a  cut.  The 


I 


150 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE  OF    PRUNING 


style  of  spring  is  a  matter  of  preference.  The  author  likes 
the  style  shown  in  Fig.  109  a,  because  it  is  less  likely  to  be- 
come caught  in  branches  than  are  the  styles  shown  in  b 
and  c.  For  general  orchard  work  the  shears  should 
be  rather  heavy,  with  a  handle  long  enough  in  propor- 
tion to  the  length  of  the  blade  to  give  plenty  of  power 
when  cutting  fairly  large  branches.  A  10-inch  size  is 


FIG.    109— PRUNING    SHEARS   OF    VARIOUS    STYLES 

a,  Author's  preference  because  spring  is  strong,  small  and  not  likely  to  be 
fouled  with  twigs;  b,  undesirable  form  of  spring  because,  unless  very  stiff  likely 
to  be  pulled  loose  by  twigs  caught  in  it;  handle  also  poorly  adapted  to  hand; 
c,  parrot's  beak  (see  Fig.  110),  spring  not  very  good  form;  d,  French  style, 
author's  second  choice,  but  preferred  by  many  fruit  growers;  e,  hedge  trimmers, 
ordinary  style.  An  improvement  is  the  hollowing  of  the  blade  near  the  hinge  so 
as  to  hold  large  limbs  and  prevent  slipping.  More  costly,  but  decidedly  better. 

about  right  for  general  orchard  work;  a  smaller  one  for 
cutting  twigs  and  berry  bushes.  Double-handed  shears 
have  their  special  uses  in  removing  larger  branches  than 
could  be  cut  easily  with  the  single-hand  shears.  Unless 
kept  very  sharp  they  are  likely  to  do  injury  to  the  parts 
left.  Therefore,  the  saw  should  be  preferred  to  them 
wherever  it  can  be  used. 
130.  Pruning  saws  ( Figs.  Ill,  115  to  117 )  are  by  no  means 


7 


FIG.     110— GOOD,    BAD    AND    INDIFFERENT    HAND    SHEARS. 

The  shears  in  the  upper  row  are  simply  and  durably  constructed  and  are 
efficient  in  operation.  Note  the  sharp-pointed  blades.  The  good  grip  secured  by 
smooth  handles  makes  it  possible  to  turn  these  in  the  hand  very  easily.  Turning 
secures  the  best  cuts  by  keeping  the  blade  always  close  in  with  the  guard  on  the 
outside  of  the  cut.  Numbers  5  and  6  are  light  shears  for  use  with  small  fruits 
or  grapes.  The  shears  in  the  lower  row  present  several  kinds  of  objectionable 
features,  and  most  of  them  are  poorly  made.  No.  7  has  a  loop  handle  which  pre- 
vents turning.  Nos.  8,  9  and  10  have  knobs  on  the  handles.  They  invariably  pro- 
duce blisters  and  may  prevent  turning  for  proper  use.  No.  8  has  too  blunt  a  point. 
No.  9  has  an  objectionable  double  guard  and  a  poor  point.  No.  10  opens  too  wide 
and  has  a  very  poor  point.  No.  1 1  is  a  freak  device  of  no  value  except  as  a 
curiosity. 


152 


I'UI  XC'II'I.KS    AM)    I'UA(TICK    OK    PRTXIXG 


perfect ;  indeed  the  majority  on  the  market  do  too  inferior 
work  to  deserve  the  name.  Most  conspicuous  among 
these  is  the  double-edge  abomination  (Fig.  Ill)  pictured 
in  seedsmen's  and  nurserymen's  catalogs.  It  not  only 
cuts  the  trees  where  it  should  not,  but  cuts  the  man  who 
uses  it  the  least  bit  car<?lessly.  Experienced  pruners 
shun  it. 

Several  styles  and  sizes  of  saws  are  needed  because- 
of  the  variety  of  work  to  be  done.    For  heavy  work,  such 

as  orchard  renovation,  the  blade 
should  be  24  to  27  inches  long. 
5  to  6  inches  wide  at  the  base, 
about  1  inch  wide  at  the  small 
end  and  have  five  or  six  teeth 
of  ordinary  form  to  the  inch. 
The  ordinary  tooth  will  give 
better  satisfaction  than  the 
"lumberman's  tooth"  often  on 
the  double-edged  saw  (Fig. 
111).  For  lighter  work,  such  as 
that  on  trees  wrell  handled  from 
the  start,  a  lighter,  smaller  saw 
is  needed.  One  with  a  blade 
21  to  24  inches  long,  4  inches 
wide  at  the  handle,  1  inch  at 
the  tip  and  with  f>.  ;V/,  or  (> 
ordinary  teeth  to  the  inch  will 
be  found  very  satisfactory. 
For  smaller  branches  a  still  smaller,  thinner  saw  will 
do  excellent  work.  One  15  inches  long,  3  wide  at 
the  base,  tapering  to  a  point  and  carrying  (),  (\l/2  or  7 
ordinary  teeth  to  the  inch  is  about  right.  A  curved  saw 
with  teeth  pointing  toward  the  handle  is  often  of  special 
use  in  making  draw  cuts.  Its  length  may  be  about  K> 
inches,  its  width  at  the  point  1  inch  and  at  the  handle  *J 
or  2 1/  inches.  In  California  it  is  largely  used  in  .sawing 
old  grapevines  for  grafting. 


FIG. 
COMMON  PRUNING  SAWS 

The  uppermost  saw  differs 
from  an  ordinary  pruning  saw 
only  in  having  a  slightly  curved 
blade.  The  handle  is  too  small 
for  the  gloved  hand.  So  is  the 
handle  in  No.  2,  which  is  a  very 
objectionable  type  of  saw  be- 
cause of  its  double-edged  blade. 
The  lowest  tool  is  popular  in 
California  for  cutting  grapevines 
that  are  to  be  grafted  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  On  it  the 
teeth  are  set  for  a  draw  cut. 


PREVENTION  AND  REPAIR  OF   MECHANICAL  INJURIES    153 


A  modification  of  the  butcher's  saw,  with  swivels  that 
permit  the  very  thin,  narrow,  fine-toothed  blade  being 
set  on  the  bias,  is  particularly  good  for  small  branches 
and  twigs,  because  the  heavy  bow  gives  weight  to  the 
light  blade,  which  makes  clean  cuts  at  any  angle  desired. 
This  is  the  type  of  saw  the  author  specially  likes  for  the 
work  it  is  capable  of  doing. 


FIG.    112— PRUNING    KNIVES  OF   VARIOUS  STYLES 

The  three  upper  ones  differ  little  except  in  the  shape  of  the  handle.  The  bot- 
tom one  is  a  Nagle  Re-blade  knife  in  which  the  blades  are  replaceable.  This  is  a 
convenient  style  because  an  assortment  of  blades  may  be  kept  for  changing  from 
dull  to  sharp  ones,  or  to  different  forms.  The  blades  readily  slip  into  the  handle 
when  in  the  nearly  closed  position. 

In  Fig.  117  is  shown  a  set  of  saws  designed  for  student 
use.  The  interchangeable  blades  permit  a  variety  of 
demonstration  work.  In  practice,  however,  the  author 
and  his  experienced  students  did  not  like  this  particular 
design.  The  blades  are  too  light,  and  the  grip  part  of  the 
handle  too  small  for  any  but  small-sized  hands. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
DRESSINGS  FOR  WOUNDS 

Many  things  have  been  recommended  for  protecting 
wounds.  Poultices  of  fresh  cow  manure  mixed  with  clay 
were  lauded  by  fruit  growers  50  years  or  more  ago ;  graft- 
ing wax  and  paint  during  the  past  50  years ;  creosote  and 
tar  by  some  fruit  growers  and  foresters  of  the  present 
day.  While  the  manure  method  is  nowadays  rarely  used, 
the  paints  and  the  grafting  wax  are  doubtless  most  popu- 
lar, but  objections  are  raised  to  them  because  of  their 
expense  and  their  faulty  protection. 


FIG.  113— COLLECTION  OF  PRUNING  KNIVES 

a,  Combination  of  pruning,  general  and  budding  blades;  b,  stationary  pruning 
blade;  c,  pocket  pruning  and  penknife;  d,  pruner  for  herbaceous  and  other  small 
growths;  et  hawk-bill  knife;  /,  popular  style  of  pruning  knife. 

In  an  old  orchard  the  author  found  a  slab  of  paint  ( !) 
made  by  the  coats  of  several  years'  painting.  It  was  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  had  a  little  rotten  wood  cling- 
ing to  its  under  side.  Beneath  this  "protection"  the  heart 
wood  of  the  6  or  8-inch  branch  wound  it  had  covered  was 
so  decayed  that  quantities  of  it  could  be  pulled  out  by 
hand  with  almost  no  effort.  Such  cases  should  condemn 
painting. 

154 


FIG.    114— PRINCIPAL   STYLES    OF    DOUBLE-HANDLED    LOPPING    SHEARS 

No.  1.  A  strong,  well-made  shear  of  simple  construction  and  moderate  cost. 
The  bolt  has  a  lock  nut  to  allow  for  adjustment.  Desirable  type.  No.  2.  Strong, 
well  made,  light  weight  shear  of  moderate  cost.  If  provided  with  a.  bolt  and  a 
lock  nut  instead  of  a  rivet  it  would  be  as  good  as  No.  1.  No.  3.  A  very  powerful  well- 
made  shear,  but  does  not  show  desirable  simplicity  of  construction.  Cos's  more 
than  the  average.  No.  4.  Fairly  good  and  inexpensive.  The  blade  has  a  blunt, 
rounded  bevel  which  is  not  as  good  as  on  those  above.  A  stop  must  also  be  pro- 
vided to  save  the  pruner's  knuckles.  No.  5.  Powerful  shear  of  English  make.  Has 
a  rivet  instead  of'a  bolt  and  a  lock  nut  and  costs  more  than  the  average.  No.  6. 
The  "double  cut"  type  of  shear.  Cannot  be  used  in  close  quarters  where  pointed 
blades  work  easily.  Has  no  locking  device  for  the  nut  and  the  handles  are  weak. 
Not  desirable. 


156 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


During  the  past  decade  much  experimenting  has  been 
done  by  botanists,  foresters,  pomological  investigators 
and  others  to  determine  the  desirable  and  the  undesirable 
dressings.  Many  experiments  are  as  yet  incomplete; 


FIG.  115— GOOD,  BAD  AND  INDIFFERENT  PRUNING  SAWS 
No.  1.  Long,  heavy  saw  for  large  limbs.  No.  2.  General  purpose  saw.  Roth 
these  styles  are  good.  Compare  lengths  with  the  18-inch  ruler.  No.  3  is  the 
"made  to  sell"  saw  with  the  "lumberman's"  tooth  on  one  side  and  the  ordinary 
tooth  on  the  other.  It  is  a  dangerous  weapon  both  to  trees  and  operators.  The 
best  place  for  it  is  in  a  museum  of  torture  implements.  No.  4  is  a  pole  saw  wi:h 
swivel  blade.  Where  branches  can't  be  reached  easily  it  serves  fairly  well  because 
the  thin,  small-toothed  blade  makes  clean  cuts.  No.  5  differs  from  No.  4  onlv  in 
the  handle.  It  would  be  better  with  a  handle  similar  to  No.  1.  No.  6  is  a  hsavy 
affair  with  an  iron  handle.  It  is  a  mean  thing  to  use  on  a  cold  day,  because  thj 
handle  chills  the  hand  in  spite  of  the  exercise  of  sawing. 

some  have  been  reported  upon.  In  order  to  present  all 
sides  of  such  an  important  question  the  author  has  quoted 
freely  from  several  of  the  already  published  writings. 
Hitherto  the  author  has  favored  pure  white  lead  in  pure 
raw  linseed  oil,  but  this  is  too  expensive  as  well  as  too 
risky.  At  present,  tin-  case  appears  to  him  in  favor  of 


DRESSINGS    FOR    WOUNDS 


157 


.asphaltum,    creosote,    tar    and    carbolineum,    as    recom- 
mended by  Selby  (132,  135)  and  Cook  (134). 

Wherever  a  dressing  is  used  it  may  be  made  less  con- 
spicuous by  adding  some  pigment  to  change  the  color. 
For  instance,  white  lead  paint  may  be  turned  to  a  bark- 
colored  gray  writh  a  little  raw  sienna,  and  cement  may  be 
similarly  treated  with  asphaltum. 


FIG.   116— TYPES  OF  HAND  SAWS  FOR  TREE  PRUNING 

Nos.  1  and  2.  Good  examples  of  the  swivel  blade  type.  Good  grips.  Make 
trood  cuts  in  any  position  and  are  not  expensive.  This  type  once  used  is  always 
used.  No.  2  has  loose  pins  in  the  blade.  These  are  often  lost  when  the  tension 
is  slackened.  No.  4.  Common  type,  with  fine  teeth  toward  the  tapered  point  for 
yse  in  narrow  quarters.  The  handle  is  small  for  the  gloved  hand.  Does  fairly  good 
work  and  is  inexpensive. 

131.  Experiments  in  wound  healing.*— Experiments  in  wound  heal- 
ing were  made  in  Nebraska  with  six  treatments — liquid  grafting 
wax,  shellac  varnish,  white  lead  paint,  pine  tar  and  coal  tar  and  no 
treatment.  "Wax  is  the  only  application  which  appears  to  possess 
any  advantage  in  aiding  the  wound  to  heal,  though  most  of  them 
did  not  hinder  the  process.  .  .  .Those  treated  with  shellac  did  not 
I  in  June]  seem  to  have  healed  quite  as  well  as  those  left  untreated 
I  but  in  September  there  seemed  to  be]  a  slight  difference  in  favor 
of  shellac  over  those  untreated.  Paint  does  not  hinder  the  process 


*  Epitomized   from   Nebraska    Bulletin  50,   Page  8. 


158  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

of  healing,  and  there  is  little  evidence  that  it  favors  it,  the  slight 
variation  being  no  more  than  would  naturally  occur  between  two 
sets  of  wounds  treated  in  the  same  way.  Those  treated  with  pine 
tar  seem  not  to  have  healed  quite  so  well  as  those  untreated,  al- 
though the  difference  was  not  great.  Coal  tar,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  a  positive  hindrance  to  the  healing  process,  not  one 
wound  having  been  reported  as  healing  extremely  well,  while  the 
majority  [healed]  only  fairly  well/* 


FIG.   117— STUDENTS'  COMBINATION  SAWS 

The  upper  tool  shows  the  saw  complete.     The  lower  blades  with   the  handle  make 

up  the  set. 

132.  Wound  dressings.*— Experience  has  recently  shown  the  prac- 
tical value  of  gas  tar  and  forms  of  liquid  asphaltum  as  wound  dress- 
ings. The  relatively  low  cost  of  the  gas  tar,  15  to  20  cents  a  gallon, 
and  certain  of  its  qualities,  render  it  adapted  to  use  for  wound  dress-* 
ings.  This  material  is  not  without  limitations.  One  of  these  is  a 
certain  difficulty  in  securing  a  continuous  covering  of  sensible  thick- 
ness with  the  gas  tar.  Apparently  very  good  results  are  secured  by 
using  it  in  the  semi-fluid  or  rather  thick  state,  and  this  applies  as 
well  to  forms  of  liquid  asphaltum  made  with  linseed  oil,  etc. 

While  at  times,  especially  in  cooler  weather,  it  is  desirable  to  heat 
the  gas  tar,  imperfect  covering  is  secured  with  the  very  fluid,  hot 
tar.  After  cooling  in  part,  a  more  favorable  condition  is  reached. 
In  general,  it  would  seem  that  two  applications  give  more  desirable 
results.  The  second  of  these  may  be  made  after  an  interval  of  a 

*  A.  D.  Selby,  Circular  No.   150,  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


DRESSINGS   FOR    WOUNDS 


159 


few  weeks  or  even  a  year.  This  material  is  often  referred  to  as 
coal  tar.  Certain  forms  of  thin  or  very  fluid  character  used  for 
roof  coverings  and  as  metal  paints  are  not  well  adapted  for  use  as 
wound  dressings. 

In  general,  pruning  wounds  less  than  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
diameter  scarcely  require  a  covering.  There  may  be  cases,  how- 
ever, where  heavy  pruning  is  practiced,  in  which  more  general  treat- 
ment of  the  wounds  is  advisable.  Solid  asphaltum  has  not  proved 
successful  as  a  wound  covering.  It  may  be  rendered  fluid  as  de- 
tailed below  (142). 

133.  Effect  of  various  wound  dressings.* — Fruit  growers  have  long 
used  paints,  tars,  waxes  and  other  substances  as  coverings  for 
wounds  of  trees.  The  following  paragraphs  report  the  efi'ects  of 


FIG.    118— POLE   SAWS    ARE   ALL    AWKWARD    IN    USE,    MAKE    RAGGED    CUTS 

AND   ARE    UNDESIRABLE 

Nos.  1,  5  and  6  are  freak  devices.  No.  2.  Objectionable  because  double  edged. 
No.  3.  Single  edge  straight  blade.  No.  4.  Swivel  type,  the  best  pole  saw  if  one 
must  be  used. 

white  lead,  white  zinc,  yellow  ocher,  coal  tar,  shellac  and  avenarius 
carbolineum  on  wounds  made  on  apple  and  peach.  The  dressings  of 
these  materials  were  applied  when  the  pruning  was  done  at  various 
seasons  of  the  year  and  upon  wounds  of  various  ages. 

In  all  cases  undressed  pruning  wounds  healed  more  rapidly  than 
those  whose  surfaces  were  protected.  Shellac  seemed,  the  tirst  sea- 
son, to  exert  a  stimulating  influence  upon  the  wounds,  but  the  second 
season  this  effect  disappeared.  Of  all  the  materials  used  shellac 
was  least  injurious.  On  the  other  hand  it  adheres  to  the  wounded 

*  G.  H.  Howe's  summary  and  conclusions,  somewhat  condensed  from  New  York 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  396. 


160  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

surfaces  least  well  of  all.  Avenarius  carbolineum  and  yellow  ocher 
caused  so  much  injury  that  neither  substance  should  ever  be  used 
(compare  134).  Coal  tar  not  only  caused  injury,  but  quickly  dis- 
appeared, either  through  absorption  or  evaporation. 

White  lead  and  white  zinc  caused  some  injury  at  the  time  of 
application,  but  the  wounded  tissues  recovered  rather  quickly,  and 
at  the  close  oLthe  first  season  the  injury  was  not  very  marked ;  at 
the  close  of  the  second  season  it  had  nearly  disappeared.  These  two 
paints  are  the  best  of  the  protective  substances  used,  and  of  the  two, 
white  lead  is  the  better. 

Nothing  is  to  be  gained  in  the  treatment  of  wounds  by  waiting 
several  weeks  before  applying  any  of  the  various  dressings  used  in 
these  experiments. 

The  treatment  of  peach  tree  wounds  with  any  of  the  substances 
under  experiment  caused  so  much  injury  that  it  may  be  said  that 
the  wounds  of  the  peach  should  never  be  treated  with  any  of  them, 
and  it  may  be  inferred  that  this  is  true  of  wounds  on  trees  of  all 
stone  fruits.  There  is  nothing  to  show  in  this  experiment  that  it  is 
worth  while  to  treat  large  or  small  wounds  of  tree  fruits  with  any 
of  the  substances  in  common  use.  Had  there  been  a  longer  period 
of  observation,  it  might  have  developed  that  the  wood  exposed  in 
the  larger  wounds  would  have  been  somewhat  saved  from  the  drcay 
which  often  sets  in  on  exposed  wood  of  fruit  trees.  Tt  may  prove 
to  be  worth  while,  therefore,  to  cover  large  wounds;  in  which  case 
white  lead  is  undoubtedly  the  best  dressing  to  use. 

From  the  results  of  this  experiment  several  deductions  seem  war- 
ranted. First,  the  dressings  commonly  applied  to  pruning  wounds 
retard  rather  than  accelerate  the  healing  of  the  wounds.  Second, 
the  effects  are  the  same  whether  the  dressings  are  applied  when  the 
wounds  are  made  or  some  weeks  later  when  the  cut  surface  has 
dried  out.  Third,  the  effects  of  the  dressings  used  are  so  injurious 
to  peach  wood  that  wounds  on  peach  trees  should  never  be  covered. 
Probably  this  statement  holds  true  for  other  stone  fruits  as  well. 
Fourth,  these  experiments  suggest  that  the  popular  notion  that 
wounds  need  to  be  covered  with  some  dressing  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  fungi,  in  sprayed  orchards  at  least,  is  usually  exaggerated. 
It  is  doubtful  if  it  is  necessary  to  attempt  to  prevent  decay  by  appli- 
cations of  dressings  of  the  kinds  under  discussion  in  wounds  under 
4  or  5  inches  in  diameter.  It  remains  to  be  proved  whether  they 
have  any  real  value  in  covering  large  wounds.  It  may  be  suspected 
that  the  injury  caused  by  the  dressing  when  applied  to  the  wounds 
largely,  if  not  wholly,  offsets  or  even  over-balances  the  protection 
offered,  if  there  be  such,  against  decay. 

134.  Painting  tree  wounds.— The  statements  quoted  from  the  New 
York  Experiment  Station  bulletin  above,  prompted  Howard  B.  Cook 
to  publish  in  the  Country  Gentleman*  an  article  from  which  the  fol- 
lowing passages  are  condensed.  Mr.  Cook  agrees  that  peach 

*  May  6,    1916,   Page  988. 


DRESSINGS   FOR    WOUNDS  161 

wounds  should  not  be  painted  because  the  trees  are  short-lived, 
quick-growing,  quick  to  heal,  and  because  large  cuts  are  uncommon 
on  them.  He  also  agrees  that  wounds  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter 
on  trees  younger  than  thirty  years  need  not  be  painted. 

But,  he  writes,  the  experimenters  state  that  when  trees  are  sprayed 
yearly  with  a  fungicide,  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  decay  will  de- 
velop. If  this  proves  true,  it  will  be  line  indeed.  In  the  experiment, 
however,  young,  low  trees  were  used,  except  for  a  couple  of  years' 
observation  on  older  trees  with  a  few  5-inch  wounds.  With  older 
trees  having  wounds  open  from  seven  to  ten  years  or  longer  it  is 
not  at  all  certain  that  decay  will  be  kept  out  by  spraying  alone, 
especially  since  larger  trees  are  not  so  minutely  covered  in  spraying. 
A  thirty-year  experiment  to  discover  the  effect  of  spraying  on  the 
decay  of  apple  trees  would  eventually  be  of  considerable  value.  The 
data  in  the  bulletin  are  of  great  value,  even  though  the  conclusions 
drawn  are  too  broad  and  unnecessary  in  view  of  the  "way  out" 
which  will  soon  follow. 

Armed  with  a  hammer,  a  saw,  and  perhaps  a  chisel,  go  into  an 
orchard  of  some  fifty  years'  standing.  Notice  a  wound  not  fully 
healed,  but  evidently* daubed  with  paint  some  years  ago.  Rap  this 
wound  sharply  with  the  hammer.  A  cave-in  occurs;  or  instead  the 
wound. seems  sound  at  the  surface,  but  gives  evidence  of  being  a 
sort  of  bung  to  a  decaying  mass  half  an  inch  farther  in.  Pry  out 
the  bung  and  you  will  see.  So  much  for  paint  as  a  preservative ! 

Now  select  a  fair-sized  perfectly  healed  wound  and  saw  off  the 
healed  part  or  cap.  You  are  very  apt  to  discover  a  decayed  wound 
or  even  a  hollow  limb.  Therefore  it  is  seen  that  we  can  have  perfect 
healing  over  a  decaying  wound.  Let  us  see  how  such  a  condition 
of  affairs  can  affect  the  owner  of  an  orchard.  From  an  upward  and 
outward  swinging  section  of  a  tree  are  suspended  four  or  five 
barrelfuls  of  apples.  The  limb  looks  sound  —  all  wounds  being 
nicely  healed — and  the  owner  ventures  out  upon  it.  Crack,  snap, 
crash  !  So  much  for  perfect  healing ! 

These  examples  show  there  is  just  one  reason  why  we  must 
apply  something  to  pruning  wounds — that  is,  for  the  preservation  of 
the  wood.  The  most  effective  of  preservatives  must  be  used — either  a 
carbolineum  or  a  grade  one  creosote  oil.  The  bulletin  says  we  should 
never  use  these  oils  because  they  are  the  most  injurious  of  paints  in 
killing  back  the  bark.  Rut  usually  where  there  is  a  must,  there  is  a 
may,  if  the  problem  is  sufficiently  studied.  The  solution  of  the  problem 
I  will  presently  come  to.  First,  however,  we  must  see  what  happens 
when  our  painting  kills  the  bark :  Under  dead  and  dying  bark  borers 
start,  and  following  them  comes  a  whitish  rot  of  the  sap  wood 
which  also  affects  the  heart  wood  or  middle  of  the  limb.  This 
destroys  the  tensile  strength  of  the  wood  to  such  an  extent  that  in 
two  or  three  years  the  limb  is  likely  to  break  down  under  its  fruit 
load  (Fig.  82). 

Now  we  come  to  a  method  of  applying  the  liquid  to  preserve 
thoroughly  both  wood  and  bark  in  a  healthy  state.  Since  ordinary 


162  PRINCIPLES    AND    PKACTICK    OF    PRUNING 

heartwood-destroying  fungi,  start  in  the  center  or  pith  and  seldom 
if  ever  affect  the  true  sap  wood,  always  paint  from  the  center  of 
the  wound  outward.  Instead  of  painting  across  the  sap  wood  clear 
to  the  bark,  the  ordinary  way,  leave  a  circle  absolutely  bare  around 
the  outside  from  fy&  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  width.  Remember 
that  these  oils  will  penetrate  a  little  farther  than  you  paint,  es- 
pecially at  the  base.  So  you  must  have  a  care  about  using  a  too 
heavilv  charged  brush.  It  is  good  practice  to  have  a  rag  handy  to 
swab  away  any  surplus. 

In  using  these  oils,  the  addition  of  just  enough  coal  tar  to  give 
them  a  dull  black  color  after  drying  will  overcome  any  tendency 
they  may  have  to  drying  in  or  out,  so  that  they  at  least  appear  to 
have  partly  faded  away.  The  main  reason  for  this  appearance  is 
that  the  oils  have  sunk  deeply  into  soft,  decaying  spots,  the  result  of 
the  decay  traveling  from  some  hole  through  the  pith  of  the 
parent  limb  to  the  wound  affected.  For  best  results  in  preserving 
wood,  two  coats  are  usually  recommended.  The  second  may  be 
applied  at  any  time  a  month  after  the  first,  but  ordinarily  some  time 
after  next  year's  pruning  will  be  most  feasible. 

It  is  sometimes  desired  to  stimulate  quick  healing.  While  the 
cut  or  a  barked  place  anywhere  is  fresh,  paint  the  edge  of  the  bark 
and  the  sap  wood  only  with  liquid  wax.  This  is  made  as  follows : 
Best  white — yellow  will  do — resin,  one  pound ;  beef  tallow,  one 
ounce.  Melt  together,  remove  from  the  fire  and  stir  in  eight  ounces 
of  alcohol.  Keep  and  use  from  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  tightly  corked. 
Through  a  hole  in  the  stopper,  thrust  a  small  brush  for  applying  the 
solution.  Perfect  results  have  been  secured  by  the  use  of  this 
material. 

135.  Available  antiseptic  materials.* — According  to  A.  D.  Selby 
two  steps  in  wound  treatment  may  be  found  necessary  in  mam- 
cases,  although  in  the  average  case  of  pruning  to  remove  a  branch 
with  a  healthy  base  only  one  may  be  essential.  These  steps  are : 
(1)  Sterilization  of  the  wound  surface  per  se.  (2)  The  application 
of  a  dressing  to  protect  from  infection  through  the  entrance  of 
spores  or  bacteria. 

(1).  The  sterilization  consists  in  killing  any  possible  spores  or 
bacteria,  etc.,  that  may  be  upon  the  surface,  by  the  use  of  a  torch  to 
cauterize  the  surface,  or  more  easily  by  the  application  of  an  anti- 
septic or  spore-destroying  substance.  Among  these  germicides  are 
corrosive  sublimate,  gasoline,  kerosene,  carbolic  acid,  petroleum, 
copper  sulphate  solution,  carbolineum,  formaldehyde,  etc.  The 
availability  of  any  of  these  processes  will  depend  especially  upon  the 
effect  on  the  living  layer  of  the  wounded  surface.  If  the  cambium 
is  killed  appreciably  it  will  raise  the  question  of  possible  injury. 

Because  of  such  possible  injury  only  corrosive  sublimate,  copper 
sulphate  and  formaldehyde  are  apparently  safe.  Petroleum  com- 

*  Paragraphs  135  to  142  have  been  excerpted  and  condensed  from  Circular  12t> 
of  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


DRESSINGS   FOR    WOUNDS  163 

pounds,  like  gasoline,  kerosene,  etc.,  penetrate  and  destroy  the  living 
tissues.  As  to  avenarius  carbolineum,  a  proprietary  substance,  some 
doubt  has  been  expressed.  Because  of  its  complete  absorption  by, 
the  wounded  surface  it  offers  many  advantages.  Upon  dead  sur- 
faces, such  as  those  from  which  decay  has  been  removed,  it  is  avail- 
able, as  are  also  carbolic  acid  and  solutions  of  copper  sulphate,  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  etc.  Upon  wounds  made  by  the  removal  of  malig- 
nant growths,  such  as  crown  gall,  hairy-root  or  malignant  blister 
cankers,  an  active  antiseptic  agent  is  required,  and  for  such  use  it 
promises  to  be  superior  to  copper  sulphate  or  corrosive  sublimate 
solutions. 

(2).  When  effective  dressings  are  applied  to  newly  cut  surfaces, 
especially  if  these  dressings  are  of  possible  antiseptic  value,  the  one 
operation  of  applying  the  dressing  may  be  considered  as  relatively 
adequate  to  the  demands. 

136.  Essential  requirements  of  a  wound  dressing. — Wound  dress- 
ings should  be  sufficiently  fluid  to  be  applied  readily  under  spring 
pruning  conditions — [fairly  low  temperatures].     They  should  form 
an   impervious,   non-cracking  layer  over  the   surface,   even   though 
large,  since  such   a  dressing  will  prevent  the  later  drying  out  and 
checking   of    the   wound.     These   two    requirements   are    essentially 
antagonistic,    since   practically   no    covering   within    reasonable   cost 
will  form  an  impervious  covering  from  a  single  application  at  or- 
dinary temperatures.     Whenever  the  covering  "is  not  secured  by  a 
single   application    serious    danger  through    subsequent   checks   may 
occur   and   thus   admit   disease   spores.     This   tendency   to   dry  out 
limits  the  usefulness  of  paints  and  pastes,  which   look  satisfactory 
when  applied,  but  dry  out  by  midsummer.     Dressings    should   not 
be   unreasonably  costly,  an   objection   to  grafting  wax,  which,   like 
paraffin  is  also  objectionable  because  of  separating  freely  from  the 
wounded  surface.     Adhesiveness  is  a  valuable  property  in  a  dressing 
because  it  prevents  abrasion.     Lastly,  a  dressing  should  not  injure 
the  growing  tissues,  though  slight  killing  may  not  be  as  objectionable 
as  imperfect  covering. 

137.  Available    materials    for    wound    dressings.— Of    the    really 
available  materials  we  have  chiefly  preparations  of  asphaltum  and 
the  residual  tars  from  the  distillation  of  wood  (pitch),  and  from  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  gas,  gas  tar.    The  materials  used  in  Europe 
under  the  name  of  "bitumen"  are  essentially  forms  of  liquid  asphal- 
tum.    The  varnishes  or  proprietary  preparations  offered  for  dress- 
ing wounds  are  essentially   liquid   asphaltum   in   some   form.     The 
fossil  "gilsonite"  of   California  is   a  hardened   form   of   asphaltum. 
The  western  petroleums,  which  contain  an  asphaltum  base,  contrast 
with  the   Pennsylvania  crude  oil,   which   lias  a  paraffin   base.     An- 
other advantage  of  asphaltum  and  gas  tar  materials  is  low  cost  as 
compared  with  the  very  high  cost  of  paints  containing  linseed  oil. 
The  low  cost  of  naphtha  or  gasoline  as  a  solvent  is  much  in  its 
favor,  were  the  preparations  without  risk. 


164  I'KINC  IPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

138.  Gas  tar  and  pitch.— Gas  tar  is  the  residual  tar  obtained  from 
coal  used  in  gas  making.     This  is  produced  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties, and  there  being  only  a  slight  demand,  it  is  sold  at  low  prices, 
ranging  from  6  to  12  cents  a  gallon,  exclusive  of  package.     Pitch 
is  the  pine  tar  derived  from  the  distillation  of  pitch  pine.     Gas  tar 
handled  in  warm  weather  is  fluid  and  very  tenacious,  with  a  strong 
tendency  to  be  completely  absorbed  by  the  wood.     Upon  this  absorp 
tion  it  is  not  clear  that  it  gives  a  sufficiently  continuous  covering 
over  the  wound  to  guard  against  subsequent  openings. 

139.  Forms  of  solid  asphaltum.— Besides  the  more  or  less  impure 
Trinidad  asphaltum,  used  largely  in  street  paving,  there  are  avail- 
able  various   types   of   asphaltum,   which    are   essentially  pure   and 
differ   only   in   their   melting  points.     All   of    these   grades   require 
heating  in  order  to  apply  them. 

For  heating,  we  use  a  charcoal  heating  pot  with  tall  bail  of  suffi- 
cient spread  to  swing  freely  above  a  10  to  12-quart  galvanized  bucket. 
This  neater  is  provided  with  openings  below  and  vent  opening 
toward  the  top  of  the  metal  cylinder;  also  legs  to  keep  free  from 
the  ground.  In  such  a  case  it  is  better  to  melt  the  asphaltum  upon 
some  hotter  lire,  and  merely  to  use  the  heating  pot  to  maintain  its 
temperature  in  the  orchard.  The  gasoline  torch  type  of  heater  may 
also  be  used  and  freely  transported  in  the  orchard.  It  will  usually 
require  special  modifications  to  enable  one  to  use  a  sufficiently  large 
vessel  for  the  asphaltum. 

The  asphaltum  is  carefully  melted  until  thoroughly  liquid,  in 
which  condition  it  is  applied  with  a  brush,  preferably  an  old  hearth 
broom,  a  thin  coating  being  run  over  the  surface  beyond  the  edge  of 
the  living  tissue.  A  second  coating  may  be  given  after  the  first  one 
becomes  partly  cooled.  The  thickness  of  the  coat  should  be  de- 
termined by  the  surface,  as  thin  upon  smooth  surfaces  as  will  give 
complete  covering.  New  hair  brushes  are  usually  destroyed  in  the 
highly  heated  asphaltum. 

140.  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  solid  asphaltum. — The  ad- 
vantages of  solid  asphaltum  are  most  appreciated  when  one  must  cover 
a  rough  splintered  wound,  for  the  cavities  may  be  tilled  with  the  liquid. 
The  disadvantages   of  heating   are  usually  great.     Under  ordinary 
conditions  it  is  not  feasible  to  build  a  lire  in  the  orchard,  except  in 
moist  weather,  since  there  is  danger  of  igniting  the  dead  grass.    The 
troubles  in  maintaining  liquid  conditions  are  also  considerable,  since 
to  apply  it  effectively  in  a  thin  coating  this  asphaltum  must  be  kept 
hot  and  very  fluid.     Probably  the  most  serious  disadvantage  is  the 
tendency  to  crack  off  during  winter.     There  is  danger  also,  where 
the  surface  is  not  entirely  dry,  that  the  moisture  will  produce  bubble 
when  the  asphaltum  is  applied.  This  is  dangerous,  especially  if  bubbles 
crack    and    expose    the    surface    below.      Vet,    despite    these    disad 
vantages,  for  large  wounds  melted  asphaltum  offers  a  rather  higher 
efficiency  than  anything  else  we  have  tried. 

141.  Liquid  forms  of  asphaltum.— To  make  liquid  asphaltum,  use. 
say,   10  pounds  of  solid  asphaltum  to  20   pounds  of   Varnolene,  a 


DRESSINGS   FOR    WOUNDS  165 

compound  petroleum  oil,  containing  more  or  less  naphtha  and  costing 
about  20  cents  a  gallon.  Melt  the  asphaltum  in  a  kettle  of  several 
gallons  capacity.  When  thoroughly  melted  withdraw  the  fire,  then 
add  the  Varnolene  and  stir  thoroughly  until  of  uniform  character. 
If  desired,  the  vessel  may  be  again  heated  and  uniformity  better  as- 
sured. This  gives  suitable  consistency  for  warm  weather  and  is  in 
the  proportion  of  one  part  asphaltum  to  two  parts  Varnolene  by 
weight.  In  the  winter  a  preparation  of  one  part  asphaltum  to  2>4 
parts  Varnolene  by  weight  may  be  desired.  WARNING — WHEN 

THE  VARNOLENE  IS  ADDED  TO  THE  HOT  ASPHALTUM  AN  INFLAM- 
MABLE GAS  IGNITES,  AFTER  THE  MANNER  OF  GASOLINE  VAPOR. 

This  formula  is  for  asphaltum  having  a  melting  point  of  285°. 
\Vith  asphaltum  with  a  melting  point  of  200°,  the  proportion  of 
Varnolene  may  be  reduced. 

142.  Linseed  oil  fluid  asphaltum.— To  make  a  fluid  asphaltum  from 
linseed  oil,  use  one  part  of  asphaltum  to  1^4  to  2  parts  of  linseed 
oil  by  weight.    Heat  the  asphaltum  until  liquid,  then  add  the  linseed 
oil  as  per  directions  given  above.     The  danger  from  the  formation 
of  inflammable  gases  is   much   less  with  the  linseed  oil  than  with 
the    Varnolene,    but   cannot   be    entirely   overlooked.      [Linseed    oil 
costs  several  times  as  much  as  Varnolene.] 

These  forms  of  liquid  asphaltum  may  be  prepared  and  packed 
in  suitable  cans  for  use  at  any  time  required.  They  should  be  put 
up  in  tins  and  soldered,  since  exposure  to  the  air  will  make  a  slight 
difference  in  the  consistency. 

143.  Asphaltum  and  sawdust  filling  for  cavities. — The  difficulties 
arising   from   using  cement  in  filling  cavities   in  orchard   or  shade 
trees  are  largely  traceable  to  the  rigid  character  of  cement  filling. 
The  light  color  is  at  times  likewise  an  objection  to  cement  as  a 
material  for  such  filling;  it  also  lacks  adaptability  for  use  in  swaying 
branches.     For  these  reasons  and   others,   asphaltum   and   sawdust 
fillings,    originated    and    tested    by   John    Boddy,    City    Forester   of 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  are  recommended  by  A.  D.  Selby.*     Dry  sawdust 
of  any  variety   and   solid   asphaltum,   such   as  "Byerlyte"  and  that 
used    for   filling   in    brick    pavements,    are    used    according   to    the 
formulae  below.     The  details,  briefly  stated,  are  as  follows;  all  ma- 
terial being  designated  by  volume. 

144.  For  cavities  in  swaying  branches: — i  part  asphaltum  to  3  to 
4  parts  sawdust.     Moisten  tools  in  crude  oil. 

145.  For  cavities  in  trunks:— i  part  asphaltum  to  5  to  6  parts  of 
sawdust.      Moisten    tools    with    crude    oil.      Stir    sawdust    into    hot 
melted  asphaltum  until    desired   consistency  is  reached.     Distribute 
sawdust,  as  added,  evenly  over  surface  of  vessel  to  avoid   boiling 
over.     Apply  in  cavities  while  still  hot.     No  joints  or  sheet  paper 
separations  are  required  as  in  cement  fillings.    If  surfaces  of  fillings 
are  irregular  or  lack  uniformity  of  color,  coat  them  with  gas  tar  or 
liquid  asphaltum. 

*  Circular   ISO,  Ohio  Agricultural    Experiment  Station. 


166  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 

In  the  preparation  of  cavities  to  be  filled  with  sawdust  and 
asphaltum,  as  with  cement,  or  to  be  rendered  antiseptic  without  fill- 
ing, it  is  recommended  that  the  decayed  parts  be  removed  to  sound 
wood.  This  involves  removal  of  all  soft  and  rotten  material ;  some- 
what deeper  cutting  away  seems  advisable  in  shade  trees  than  in 
fruit  trees.  It  is  further  recommended  that  the  interior  surfaces 
be  rendered  sterile  by  applications  of  corrosive  sublimate,  carbo- 
lineum  or  kerosene.  It  is  not  advisable  to  use  creosote,  because  it 
is  too  penetrating  for  use  next  to  living  parts.  The  thoroughness 
with  which  the  work  of  removal  and  disinfection  is  done  will  very 
largely  determine  the  success  of  the  fillings  made. 

In  case  of  very  large  cavities  filled  with  asphaltum-sawdust  mix- 
ture, it  may  be  desirable  to  use  an  outer  screen  of  close  wire  netting 
or  of  poultry  netting.  In  any  case  the  outer  line  of  the  filling  will 
be  kept  more  uniform  by  some  surface,  as  of  oil-coated  wood  or 
metal,  against  which  pressure  is  exerted  as  the  filling  is  made. 
Finally,  the  irregular  and  general  surface  of  the  filling  may  be 
coated  properly  and  successfully  with  gas  tar  or  liquid  asphaltum ; 
either  of  these  is  a  proper  dressing  for  any  border  surfaces  that 
may  have  been  cut  to  secure  contact  with  the  filling. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  solid  asphaltum  referred  to  in  materials 
is  that  derived  from  the  refining  of  petroleum  with  an  asphaltum 
base.  It  can  be  stored  and  shipped  in  iron  drums.  In  recent  years 
it  has  been  used  for  filling  the  interstices  of  street  pavements,  and 
for  many  other  purposes. 


CHAPTER  IX 
PRUNING  NURSERY  STOCK* 

Digging  stock  destroys  roots.  Were  it  possible  to  dig 
such  plants  with  all  the  root  area  intact  and  to  place  it 
where  desired  without  loss  of  any  of  this  area,  there 
would  be  no  check  to  growth.  Hence  every  effort  should 
be  made  in  digging  to  approach  this  ideal  as  nearly  as 
possible,  for  thus  will  success  be  greater.  As  already 
shown,  roots  extend  far  in  each  direction  from  the  base 
of  the  stems,  often  farther  than  the  spread  of  the  branches 
on  one  side  plus  the  length  of  the  trunk.  That  is,  a  tree 
with  a  trunk  4  feet  high  and  a  spread  of  3  feet  on  each 
side  of  the  trunk  would  extend  its  roots  usually  at  least 
7  feet  on  each  side,  and  thus  cover  a  circular  area  fully-14 
feet  in  diameter.  Examples  that  prove  this  are  locust 
and  poplar,  which  often  send  up  suckers  farther  away 
from  the  main  trunk  than  the  height  of  the  trunk  plus 
the  spread  of  the  branches  on  one  side. 

This  fact  shows  one  reason  why  losses  of  newly  set 
trees  improperly  transplanted  are  so  great ;  so  great  a 
quantity  of  the  most  important  roots — the  feeding  area — 
is  lost  in  ordinary  digging  that  the  trees  can't  recover. 
Such  losses  may,  however,  be  prevented  to  a  very  large 
extent.  In  experimental  practice  they  have  been  reduced 
to  almost  nothing.  From  what  has  been  said  (Chapter 
II)  the  reasons  for  reducing  the  top  are  evident.  A  word, 
however,  must  be  said  concerning  the  roots.  As  or- 
dinarily dug  and  delivered  by  the  nurseryman,  they  are 
more  or  less  mangled,  split,  bruised  or  otherwise  injured, 
for  the  most  part  unavoidably.  If  planted  just  as  received 
they  will  grow,  to  be  sure,  but  better  results  will  be  se- 

*  The  trimming  of  young  trees  in  the  nursery  rows  is  discussed  in  the  author's 
book,  Plant  Propagation,  Greenhoure  and  Nursery  Practice,  Page  279. 

167 


168 


'KI.\(  IPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUXIXG 


cured  if  they  are  pruned.  For  this  work  nothing  equals 
sharp  pruning  shears  or  a  heavy  sharp  knife.  Special 
emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  "sharp,"  because  the  cleaner 
the  cut  the  better.  The  work  consists  in  cutting  off  all 
injured  roots  just  above  the  wounds  so  as  to  have  clean 
surfaces  to  develop  good  calluses  and  new  roots  (Fig.  119). 
About  two  decades  ago  the  horticultural  world  was 
stirred  by  the  Stringfellow  or  stub-root  method,  a 

"horticultural  heresy," 
as  to  the  trimming  of 
nursery  trees  for  trans- 
planting. 

The  great  apostle  of 
this  system,  the  late 
H.  M.  Stringfellow,  a 
prominent  horticultur- 
ist of  Texas,  advised 
that  the  roots  of  nursery 
trees  be  cut  to  mere 
stubs  a  few  inches  long 
and  the  tops  to  sticks 
or  whips.  In  some 
cases  absolutely  no 
stumps  of  roots  were 
left  below  ground  and 
none  of  limbs  above, 
the  "tree"  when  thus 
pruned  sometimes  being  jammed  into  a  hole  made  in  the  soil 
with  a  crowbar !  One  distinct  advantage  is  thus  gained — 
planting  requires  a  minimum  of  time !  A  modification  of  the 
method  is  to  leave  stubs  of  roots  an  inch  to  perhaps  4 
inches  long  on  the  main  root  axis,  and  perhaps  a  few 
stubs  of  branches  if  specially  well  placed.  Tests  at  a 
large  number  of  experiment  stations  show  that  the 
method  was  sometimes  an  all-around  advantage,  some- 
times the  reverse.  Doubtless  the  plan  cannot  be  gen- 
erally recommended.  At  any  rate  it  has  fallen  into  "in- 


F1G.    119— WHERE    NEW    ROOTS    START 

The  roots  of  this  Kieffer  pear  tree  were 
cut  back  at  planting  time.  The  following 
spring  (a  year  later)  the  tree  had  developed 
new  roots  as  shown.  Note  that  most  of  them 
appear  near  the  cut  ends  of  the  old  roots. 
The  injuries  were  caused  by  careless  digging. 
Roots  so  injured  should  be  cut  back  just  above 
the  wounds  so  as  to  leave  clean,  smooth  sur- 
faces which  will  heal  over  better  and  quicker 
than  will  ragged  and  badly  dried  tissues. 


PRUNING    NURSERY    STOCK 


169 


nocuous  desuetude,"  and  except  as  an  interesting  theory 
it  is  rarely  discussed  today. 

146.  Advantages  of  Stringfellow  system. — The  main 
points  claimed  by  Mr.  Stringfellow  for  the  stub-root  sys- 
tem of  pruning  are  as  follows  :  1.  The  saving  in  hole  dig- 


FIG.    120— VARIOUS   GRADES   OF   PEACH    TREES 

Caliper     (left    to    right)     No.     1,     %     inch;    No.     2,    z/4     inch;    No.    3,    5^    inch; 
No.  4,   y2  inch;  No.  5,  ft   inch. 

ging;  2,  saving  in  freight  to  purchaser  if  trees  are  root 
and  top  pruned  at  the  nursery;  3,  corresponding  saving 
in  charge  for  packing ;  4,  saving  to  nurserymen  in  taking 
up  trees  for  shipments;  5,  reducing  to  a  minimum, 
through  the  removal  of  most  of  the  roots,  the  danger  of 


170 


PRINCIPLES   AND  PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


FIG.  121 

YEARLING     PEACH     WITH 
CENTRAL  LEADER 


spreading  all  kinds  of  fungous  dis- 
eases and  insects;  6,  enabling  two 
and  even  three-year-old  trees  to  be 
used  for  planting  as  advanta- 
geously as  one-year-old  trees,  thus 
saving  losses  to  nurserymen,  who 
ordinarily  burn  such  trees. 

Stringfellow*  holds  that  the  usual  ill 
success  in  transplanting  the  pecan  is  due 
entirely  to  leaving  too  long  a  top  root. 
He  advises  cutting  this  root  to  4  or  5 
inches  and  setting  the  tree  at  least  6  inches 
deeper  than  hefore  it  was  taken  up. 

The  main  peach  plat  used  in  the  ex- 
periments conducted  by  H.  N.  Starnsf  to 
test  the  Stringfellow  plan  presented  on 
the  whole  as  fine  an  appearance  as  any 
two-year-old  peach  orchard  the  writer 

[Mr.  Starns]  has  ever  seen.     The  trees  at  the  time  averaged  1:.'  to 

15  feet  in  height  and  bore  considerably  over  300  crates  upon  one  acre. 
It  may  be  stated  that  the  writer  [Mr. 

Starns]  is  fairly  satisfied  that  peach  trees, 

pruned  by  the  Stringfellow  method,  will 

live  and  flourish  in  Georgia,  even  in  stiff 

clay  soil  and  under  adverse  meteorological 

conditions.     This  statement  may  also  be 

extended  to  cover  apples  and  cherries. 

Dr.  J.  C.  \yhitten  concludes  from  ex- 
periments  and   from   reports  of   growers 

that  the  method  of  stub-root  pruning  and 

cutting  back  to  12  to  18  inches,  according 

to    the    Stringfellow    plan,    has    been    of 

great   service   in    showing   that   it    is    not 

necessary  to  retain  anything  like  the  large 

quantity   of   fibrous    roots    formerly    sup- 
posed to  be  necessary. 

In    the   year   book   of   the    Netnerland 

Pomological  Society§  for  1902,  A.  C.  Ide 

reports  experiments  on  severe  pruning  9f 

young  apple   and   pear  trees  at  time   of      FIG.   122  — AFTER   PRUN- 

transplanting.      He   used    one,    two    and       ING  TREE  IN  FIG.   121. 

*  Texas    Farm   and   Ranch,  24,   Page    10. 

t  Georgia  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  40.  The  reader  will  here  find  a  series 
of  half-tones  illustrating  the  discussion  on  the  experiments  and  also  numerous 
articles  quoted  from  the  agricultural  press,  giving  both  favorable  and  unfavorable 
comment  on  the  theory. 

i  Cultura,  14,  Page  424. 


PRUNING    NURSERY    STOCK 


171 


three-year-old  trees.  One-half  of  each  lot  were  transplanted 
in  the  usual  way;  others  had  their  roots  pruned  to  mere  stocks. 
Trees  in  the  first  lot  started  off  more  vigorously  in  the  spring,  but 
before  the  end  of  June  the  closely  pruned  trees  were  larger  than  the 
others,  and  this  lead  was  maintained  throughout  the  season.  When 
the  trees  were  dug  the  closely  pruned  ones  had  developed  much  better 
root  systems  than  the  others. 


FIG.    123— HOW  TOP   OF  NEWLY   SET  TREE   MAY   BE    PRUNED 

The  top  of  a  tree  should  be  pruned  immediately  after  planting.  Most  orchardists 
do  not  prune  enough.  On  the  left  the  tree  is  shown  as  received  from  nursery;  in 
the  center  as  ordinarily  but  insufficiently  pruned;  on  the  right  pruned  much  better. 
The  branches  should  be  farther  apart  to  make  for  strength.  Better  leave  the 
lowest  and  the  highest  in  this  case,  cut  out  the  others  and  develop  new  ones  upon 
the  leader  as  seen  in  the  left-hand  picture. 

147.  When  to  prune  nursery  tree  tops. — While  the 
roots  may  be  pruned  prior  to  carrying  the  trees  to  the 
field,  it  is  conceded  to  be  best  practice  to  prune  the  tops 
after  the  trees  have  been  planted.  When  pruned  prior  to 


172 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


taking  to  the  field  injuries  may  occur  in  the  handling, 
and  the  very  parts  most  prized  may  be  lost.  When 
pruned  after  planting  the  head  may  not  only  be  started 
to  best  advantage  at  the  desired  height,  but  there  is  a 
better  chance  of  having  the  branches  in  good  condition 
as  well  as  having  a  larger  number  among  which  to 
choose.  Always  in  doing  such  pruning  the  feet  should 
be  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  trunk  and  the  cuts  made 
from  below  upward  with  a  keen-edged  knife.  When  trees 
are  transplanted  in  autumn,  the  pruning  should  be  say  6 
inches  beyond  the  point  where  the  frame  limbs  are  de- 


FIG.    124— EFFECT  OF   WIND    ON    UNSTAKED   TREES.      WINDBREAK   NEEDED 
Only  by  the  most  careful   pruning  can   these   trees  be   balanced   and  then   only 
with  the  greatest  difficulty.     Staking  would  have  helped  many   of  them. 

sired,  because  there  ma£  be  more  or  less  winterkilling. 
The  final  pruning  should  be  given  just  before  growth 
starts  in  the  spring.  (Compare  121.) 

148.  Lengths  of  nursery  tree  trunks.— Because  tree 
planters  in  the  past  have  generally  called  for  trees  with 
trunks  of  certain  lengths  the  nurserymen  have  pruned 
off  the  lower  limbs,  especially  when  the  trees  were  to  be 
sold  when  two  years  old.  Formerly  the  height  of  the 


PRUNING    NURSERY    STOCK 


173 


trunk  was  4  to  5  feet;  during 
the  first  decade  of  this  century 
3  to  4,  because  low-headed 
trees  are  steadily  gaining  in 
popularity.  Still  more  recently 
certain  nurserymen  have  been 
heading  their  trees  still  lower 
or  in  some  cases  allowing  prac- 
tically all  of  the  lower  limbs  to 
grow  (Figs.  195,  200).  The 
distinct  advantage  of  this  prac- 
tice is  that  the  purchaser  may 
start  the  head  just  where  he 
happens  to  want  it. 

149.  Trimming  trees  at  trans- 
planting time.  —  Because  such 
a  large  proportion  of  the  root 
system  is  left  in  the  soil  when 
nursery  trees  and  shrubs  are 
dug,  even  when  the  trees  are 
most  carefully  lifted,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  establish  a  new  baK 
ance  between  top  and  root.  First,  how- 
ever, all  torn,  dead  and  injured  roots 
should  be  pruned  back  by  clean  cuts 
through  living  parts  of  these  roots.  A 
knife  makes  a  clean  job,  but  shears  do 
quicker  work.  Both  implements  should 
be  keen-edged.  On  the  roots  slanting 
wounds  which  face  downward  are  sup- 
posed to  heal  more  quickly  than  those 
facing  upward  or  to  one  side.  Second, 
the  top  must  be  considerably  reduced, 
otherwise  the  trees  may  suffer,  be  slow 
to  establish  themselves.  Often  they 
die.  Peaches  are  usually  trimmed  to 
a  mere  whip,  but  apples,  pears  and  fr'Jnk  J,2^ 


FIG.    125 

PEACH    OF    POOR    FORM 
This  one-year  tree  failed  to  de- 
velop  well-placed  branches  on  the 
main  trunk.     Compare  Fig.   126. 


FIG.    126 

AFTER  PRUNING 
The  same  tree  as  in 
Fig.      125.       The     dead 
cut  out. 


174 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OK    PRUNING 


other  trees  do  not  seem  to  be  able  to  stand  quite  such 
severe  handling.  Always  a  goodly  number  of  robust  buds 
should  be  left  to  develop  the  frame  branches.  Some  of 
these  may  be  upon  the  main  stem,  others  upon  the  stubs 
of  the  branches  developed  in  the  nursery.  „ 

"Whip"  pruning  and  "stub"  pruning  have  each  their 
advocates.  The  former  is  the  more  popular  with  and 
applicable  to  yearling  trees,  and  since  one-year  trees  are 
steadily  gaining  in  popularity,  this  method  is  the1  more 
important.  It  consists  in  leaving  nothing  but  the  original 


FIG.   127— YOUNG  TREES  PROPERLY  HEELED  IN   FOR  TEMPORARY  STORAGE 
When  received  too  early  for  planting,  nursery   stock  should   be   properly   cared 
for.     "Heeling   in"  keeps   the  roots   moist    and   insures   growth   when   the  trees    are 
planted  in  the  field. 

stem — no  branches  at  all — and  shortening  this  to  the  de- 
sired height.  During  the  first  season  the  tree  "feathers 
out"  or  develops  many  twigs,  among  which  may  be  sev- 
eral properly  placed  to  form  the  head. 

When  the  nursery  trees  are  sturdy  and  have  several 
branches,  the  stub  method  may  be  used,  the  head  being 
started  at  the  height  desired.  This  method  leaves  one  t<> 


PRUNING    NURSERY    STOCK 


175 


FIG.    128 

YEARLING    PEACH    BEFORE    PRUNING 
This   tree   was   cut   back   to    18   inches  when 

set,    but   did    not    develop    any    branches    near 

the  top. 

danger  has  passed  and  the  trees 
down  to  business. 
This  plan  is  generally 
more  successful  than 
that  of  trying  to  de- 
velop a  new  frame 
limb  where  too  few 
have  been  started  or 
one  has  been  lost.  Prac- 
tical orchardists  are  by 
no  means  unanimous 
in  their  methods  of 
starting  the  head.  It 
may  be  said  that  suc- 
cess may  follow  each 
method  —  and  no, 
method  —  as  has  been 
shown  (151)  by  the 
Rhode  Island  Experi- 


three  buds  on  such 
branches  as  may  be 
well  enough  placed  to 
form  the  head,  the  bal- 
ance of  the  wood  being 
cut  off.  While  five 
branches  are  generally 
advised,  yet  it  is  often 
better  to  start  with  six 
or  eight,  spaced  as  far 
apart  as  possible. 
Should  an  accident  oc- 
cur, the  injured  branch 
may  be  cut  out  and  yet 
not  spoil  the  top. 
Should  no  injury  occur, 
the  inferior  limbs  may 
be  removed  when  such 
are  beginning  to  settle 


FIG. 


129— SAME    TREE    AS    IN    FIG.     128 
AFTER    BEING    PRUNED 


176'  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


FIG.    131— DESIRABLE  FORM  OF   GROWTH 

MADE  BY   TREE   HEADED   ABOUT 

2   FEET  WHEN  SET 


FIG.    130 

UNDESIRABLE    FORM 

Tree  was  headed  3  feet 

high  when  set. 

ment  Station*  (Figs. 
137  to  144).  Even 
second-grade  trees 
may,  with  some  ex- 
tra work,  be  made  to  produce  fairly  well-formed  heads, 
as  has  been  shown  by  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station 
in  the  following  condensed  account. 

150.  Actual  experience  pruning  young  trees.— Paddock  presents  an 
interesting  discussion  of  some  photographs  (from  which  drawings 
are  herewith  reproduced!),  to  fix  the  points  of  the  various  stages 
of  pruning  in  the  reader's  mind.  His  article  is  condensed  as  follows : 

The  trees  were  second  grade  and  evidently  three  years  old  when 
planted.  The  lower  laterals  had  all  been  pruned  away  in  the  nurs- 
ery, so  the  tops  were  much  too  high  for  Colorado.  There  was  also 
difficulty  in  getting  branches  to  form  at  suitable  places  to  make  the 
selections  for  the  head.  However,  the  results  are  much  better  than 
if  the  tops  had  been  left  as  received  from  the  nursery,  as  is  so  often 
done. 

The  trees  1,  2  and  3  in  Figure  132  were  headed  back  to  about  24 
inches  in  April.  Had  there  been  any  laterals  below  this  point  they 
would  have  been  pruned  back  to  single  buds,  so  clusters  of  leaves 
might  have  formed  and  thus  provided  some  shade  for  the  trunks. 


*  Annual   Report,    19n. 
v  Colorado  Bulletin    106- 


FIG.    132— DEVELOPING  TOPS  ON   SECOND-CLASS  TREES   (see  text) 


178 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


The  pictures  show  how  the  trees  looked  in  the  following  April  at 
the  time  of  the  first  pruning.  No.  1  had  formed  five  vigorous 
branches,  No.  2  produced  four  and  No.  3  but  two. 

The  five  branches  on  No.  1  were  saved  to  form  a  framework  for 
the  tree  and  were  cut  back  to  about  one  foot.  These  are  well  dis- 
tributed about  the  trunk,  but  are  too  close  together.  The  lowest 
limb  might  well  be  double  the  distance  from  the  top.  No.  la  shows 
No.  1  after  it  was  pruned,  with  the  idea  of  making  an  open-centered 
tree. 

In  No.  2  the  limbs  are  top  close.  All  of  these  were  saved  to  form 
the  framework  of  a  tree,  with  a  leader,  as  is  shown  in  No.  :>a.  The 
only  difference  between  this  and  No.  la  is  that  the  ti.pmost  branch 
was  left  longer  than  the  others.  The  pruner  of  this  tree  carelessly 
allowed  three  vigorous  limbs  to  grow 
from  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  for 
they  could  serve  no  useful  purpose,  but 
only  rob  the  other  limbs  of  plant  food. 
Such  growths  are  best  prevented  by 
pinching  off  the  buds  early  in  the  season. 

No.  3  failed  to  throw  out  enough 
branches  to  form  a  suitable  top.  The  two 
produced  are  nearly  opposite,  so  a  had 
crotch  would  soon  result.  Both  branches 
were  cut  back  to  the  second  bud,  as  shown 
in  a,  in  hope  of  inducing  dormant  buds 
to  push  out  lower  down.  At  the  cbse 
of  the  second  season  the  pruned  trees  ha-1 
made  a  growth  respectively  as  shown  in 
lb,  2b  and  3b. 

Pruning  results  are  shown  in  1c,  2c 
and  3c.  Tree  No.  1  is  shown  in  1  .'. 
One  of  the  frame  limbs  seemed  i-u  er 
fluous,  so  it  was  remove  1  and  the  ne  v 
growth,  shown  in  lb,  was  crt  back  about 
one-half.  The  few  side  shoots  were  ea.h 
cut  back  to  a  single  hud,  with  the  id<  a  of 
developing  fruit  spurs  during  the  se  ond 
year,  when  numerous  branches  should  de- 
velop on  all  of  the  limbs.  As  a  rule  two 
of  the  best  placed  of  these  secondary 
limbs  will  be  selected  on  each  of  the  main 
limbs  to  form  additional  framework.  The 
rest  may  be  removed  or  cut  hack  to  de- 
velop fruit  spurs  as  may  seem  desirable. 

The  form  of  the  tree,  then,  sh  mid  he 

developed  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  WELL-BRANCHED    NURS- 

season,  and  subsequent  pruning  should  he  5  R  A  M  B      LIMBS      ARE 

directed  toward  retaining  this  shape,  cut-  PLACED. 


PRUNING    NURSERY    STOCK 


179 


FIG.   134. 

WHERE  TO  CUT 
Same  tree  -  as  shown 
in  Fig.  133.  The  cross 
marks  indicate  where 
the  limbs  should  be  cut 
off  when  the  tree  is  set. 


FIG.  135— HOW  TO  PLANT  A  TREE 
It  is  important  to  work  the  soil  among  the 
pruned  roots  and  then  to  pack  it  down  hard 
by  trampling  so  as  to  bring  every  part  of 
the  root  in  contact  with  the  moist  earth  and 
prevent  the  formation  of  air  spaces. 


ting   back    excessive    growths    and    thinning 
and  renewing  the  bearing  wood. 

The  pruning  of  tree  No.  2  is  much  the 
same,  except  that  a  leader  is  being  developed. 
Although  the  top  of  2c  was  cut  back  the  same  as  tree  No.  1,  the 
topmost  branch  is  developing  into  a  vigorous  central  shaft.  The 
first  set  of  frame  limbs  has  formed  and  a  second  set  is  to  be  de- 
veloped at  a  suitable  distance  above.  The  new  growth  is  to  be  cut 
back. 

The  tree  shown  in  the  series  3  to  3c  is,  so  far,  pretty  much  of 
a  failure.  The  severe  heading  given  it  in  the  spring  following  set- 
ting failed  to  make  branches  develop  lower  down.  It  would  have 
been  a  better  plan  to  insert  two  or  three  buds  at  suitable  points 
around  the  main  stem  in  June  of  that  year.  This  can  probably  be 
done  next  June,  but  the  chance  for  success  is  not  so  great.  Limbs 
can  be  developed  by  this  means  just  where  wanted,  but  the  average 
person  will  succeed  better  with  trees  which  do  not  require  such 
manipulation. 

151.  Methods  of  tree  planting. — An  experiment  to  test 


180 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE    OF   PRUNING 


FIG.  136  — AIR  SPACE 
AMONG  ROOTS  OF 
BADLY  PLANTED  TREE 


various  methods  of  tree  planting- 
was  conducted  by  F.  W.  Card*  and 
the  results  of  one  season's  growth 
shown  and  described.  Ten  two- 
year  Northern  Spy  trees  were 
planted  by  each  of  the  methods  as 
follows :  1,  Trimmed  to  whips  and 
cut  back  to  about  3  feet ;  2,  trimmed 
to  whips  and  the  leader  left  un- 
touched ;  3,  branches  cut  back  half, 
leader  left ;  4,  untrimmed.  In  all  of 
these  cases  the  roots  were  left  un- 
trimmed unless  injured  or  decayed  at 
the  end,  in  which  case  they  were  cut 
back  to  sound  wood.  5,  Roots  un- 
trimmed; 6,  roots  cut  back  half; 
7,  roots  cut  back  to  mere  stub.  The 
tops  of  trees  5,  6 
and  7  were  treated 
as  in  No.  3.  8, 
Stringfellow 


method,  the  roots  being  cut  back  to  a 
mere  stump  1  or  2  inches  long,  and  the 
tree  to  about  a  foot  high.  In  the  spring 
of  the  fourth  year  following,  representa- 
tive trees  in  each  lot  were  photo- 
graphed (Figs.  138  to  144)  and  the  fol- 
lowing notes  taken  : 

1.  Whips  with  leader  cut  back  (Fig. 
144).  Good  trees  and  for  the  most  part 
well  branched.  Their  greatest  defect 
is  in  the  long,  spindling  growth  which 
has  resulted  from  lack  of  pruning. 
Meads  have  formed  at  2  to  3  feet  from 
the  ground.  2.  Whips  with  leader  un- 


FIG.    137— TREE   SET 
OBLIQUELY  AGAINST 

WIND 

In  regions  of  high 
winds  plant  the  trees 
with  the  tops  leaning 
toward  the  wind  as 
shown  here.  On  hill- 
sides lean  them  uphill. 


*  Rhode    Island    Experiment    Station    Report    1901,    Page    23S. 


PRUNING    NURSERY    STOCK 


181 


touched  (Fig.  143).  These  trees  do  not  average  so  well 
as  those  in  the  previous  lot.  Most  of  them  do  not  have 
good  branches  low  down,  the  real  heads  having  formed 
5  or  6  feet  from  the  ground,  though  in  some  cases  the 
lower  branches  will  make  good  heads.  These  trees  seem 
to  be  the  most  undesirable  ones  in  the  experiment. 
3.  Branches  cut  back  half,  roots  unpruned  (Fig.  142). 
Good  trees,  with  uniform  heads  about  3  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  heads  well  balanced  and  trees  well  formed. 


FIG.    13S— TREE    GROWN    FROM 
UNTRIMMED    NURSERY    STOCK 


FIG.    138a— TREE  FROM 
'STRINGFELLOWED"     ROOTS 


4.  Branches  untrimmed,  roots  untrimmed  (Fig.  140). 
Good  trees.  A  few  seem  rather  slender,  but  most  are 
excellent.  Heads  formed  about  as  in  Fig.  138.  Growth 
not  quite  so  good  on  the  average.  5.  Branches  cut  back, 
roots  untrimmed  (Fig.  138),  a  counterpart  of  Fig.  140. 
Very  similar  in  appearance  to  Fig.  140.  Growth  a  trifle 
better,  heads  well  formed  (Fig.  141).  6.  Branches  cut 
back  and  roots  cut  back  (Fig.  141).  More  uneven  in 


182 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


growth  than  the  other  lots,  but  much  the  same  in  gen- 
eral habit.  7.  Branches  cut  back,  roots  cut  by  the  String- 
fellow  method  (Fig.  139).  Trees  somewhat  uneven.  The 
lot  contains  one  or  two  very  fine  trees,  but  no  poor  ones. 
8.  Stringfellow  method  (Fig.l38a).  These  trees  have  made 
an  excellent  start.  They  will  make  well-formed  trees, 
with  heads  just  at  the  ground.  Generally  a  large  number 


FIG.    139— TREE   GROWN    FROM 
STUB-PRUNED    ROOTS 


FIG.    140— TREE   GROWN    FROM 
UNTRIMMED    NURSERY    PLANT 


of  branches  start,  and  these  in  turn  branch  at  about  30 
inches  from  the  starting  point. 

In  these  observations  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  eye  takes  account  of  the  tree  as  it  stands,  regardless 
of  whether  much  or  little  wood  was  cut  away  at  time  of 
planting.  The  experiments  show  that  under  favorable 
conditions  a  tree  will  adjust  itself  to  almost  any  kind  of 
treatment  and  still  make  a  good  tree.  For  practical  pur- 


PRUNING    NURSERV    STOCK 


183 


poses  the  most  rational  method  seems  to  be  to  leave  all 
sound  roots  and  shorten  back  the  tops,  which  not  only 
helps  to  bring-  about  a  proper  balance  between  root  and 
leaf,  but  also  improves  the  subsequent  character  of 
growth  of  the  tree. 

152.  Low-headed  trees  have  so  much  to  commend  them 
that  they  arc  annually  becoming-  more  popular.     To  sc- 


FIG.    141 

HEAD  ON  TREE  WHERE  ROOTS 
WERE  CUT  BACK 


FIG.     142— AT    PLANTING    TIME 

THE    BRANCHES    WERE 

CUT   BACK 


cure  them  it  is  advisable  to  buy  from  nurserymen  who 
make  a  specialty  of  such  trees  or  to  purchase  only  year- 
ling stock,  because  the  heads  on  such  stock  may  be  started 
as  low  as  desired.  In  the  former  case  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  thin  out  and  cut  back  the  top  as  may  be  desired. 
In  the  latter  the  "switches"  for  the  "trees"  are  little  more 
than  that,  have  their  bud  systems  intact,  therefore  the 


184  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OK    PRUXIXC, 


FIG.    143— TREE   GROWN    FROM 

A    "WHIP"    WITH    THE 

LEADER    LEFT 


FIG.     144 —  HEAD    FORMED    BY 

"WHIP"   WITH    LEADER 

CUT   BACK 


head  may  be  started  any- 
where. Trees  which  na- 
turally grow  erect,  at  least 
on  the  start — apple,  sweet  cherry  and  pear  —  may  be 
headed  at  18  to  24  inches  from  the  ground ;  and  those 
smaller  growing,  more  spreading  trees,  such  as  the  stone 
fruits,  other  than  sweet  cherries,  may  be  headed  6  or  even 
more  inches  lower.  This  pruning  must  be  done  im- 
mediately after  the  trees  have  been  set.  If  delayed  for  a 
year  the  chance  to  get  a  good,  low  head  will  have  been 
lost ;  for  no  attention  will  make  up  for  the  neglect  to  do 
the  work  at  the  proper  time. 

During  the  first  summer  practically  all  the  buds 
start   and   the   "whips"   will    "feather   out"    abundantl 


PRUNING  NURSERY  STOCK  185 

Every  leaf  and  twig  should  be  allowed  to  develop  to  its 
fullest  extent  without  let  or  hindrance  (except  as  out- 
lined in  165,  166  and  169)  because  this  green  stuff  will 
help  to  establish  a  sturdy  trunk  and  a  strong  root  area. 
Root  action  depends  on  leaf  action  (Chapter  II).  The 
following  spring  will  be  soon  enough  to  do  anyx  cutting. 
Then,  among  the  often  broom-like  tops,  the  desired  num- 
ber of  twigs  may  be  selected  to  form  the  frame  limbs. 
From  this  time  forward  the  pruning  and  training  may 
be  done  as  recommended  by  Lewis  (Chapter  X). 


CHAPTER  X 


PRUNING   YOUNG  TREES* 

153.  Disappointments  attributed  to  pruning.! — Many 
orchardists  growing  young  trees  have  been  disappointed 
with  the  results  obtained  from  pruning.  While  these  dis- 
appointments may  be  due,  on  the  one  hand,  to  a  lack  of 
knowledge  of  fundamental  principles  which  underly  prun- 
ing, on  the  other  hand,  we  believe  much  of  the  dissatis- 
faction is  because  the  grower  has  expected  too  much  from 

pruning  alone,  and  has 
failed  to  realize  the  im- 
portance of  other  or- 
chard practices — irriga- 
tion, tillage,  mainten- 
ance of  soil  fertility, 
etc. 

No  matter  how  skill- 
fully we  prune  for 
fruitfulness,  unless  we 
have  such  soil  condi- 
tions as  to  furnish  suffi- 
cient food  and  moisture 
at  the  right  time  to  de- 
velop good,  strong 
buds,  we  cannot  expect 
to  secure  satisfactory 
results.  Again,  we 
must  realize  that  soil. 


FIG.  145— BADLY  FORMED  TREE  HEAD 
Never  start  the  main  limbs  in  this  manner. 
They  should  issue  in  a  spiral  whorl  with  4  to 
12  or  15  inches  between  one  limb  and  the 
next  one  above.  Such  an  arrangement  will 
prevent  bad  crotches  and  will  greatly 
strengthen  the  tree. 


*  Paragraphs  153  to  177  have  been  somewhat  condensed  from  the  article  by 
Professor  C.  I.  Lewis  in  Bulletin  No.  130,  of  the  Oregon  Experiment  Station.  With 
slight  modifications,  indicated  in  brackets  or  cross  referenced  to  other  parts  of  this 
volume  by  the  present  author,  the  methods  apply  to  a  very  considerable  area  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 

t  As  noted  in  paragraph  172  the  directions  given  in  paragraphs  153  to  172  apply- 
chiefly  to  apple  pruning,  but  also  to  all  deciduous  fruits  and  nuts.  Specific  direc- 
tions for  these  other  fruits  are  in  paragraphs  173  to  177. 

186 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


187 


elevation,  and  climate  are  factors  which  have  a  very  close 
relation  to  pruning.  Likewise,  the  variety  question  is  al- 
ways to  be  taken  into  consideration.  For  example,  the 
pruning  of  the  Jonathan  in  southern  Idaho,  at  an  altitude 
of  2,000  feet,  on  a  silt  loam,  is  a  different  problem  from 
that  of  pruning  Yellow  Newtown  in  western  Oregon  on 


FIG.  146— MAIN  BRANCHES  BARREN  BECAUSE  OF  NEGLECT 

This  old  Italian  Prune  tree  has  not  been  pruned  for  years.  The  frame  and 
lower  branches  have  become  barren  through  the  dying  of  the  fruit  spurs  which 
were  too  much  shaded  by  the  thick,  bushy  top.  This  top  consists  largely  of  long, 
slender,  weak  fruit  spurs  and  fruiting  branches  like  those  in  Fig.  168. 


I'RIXC  II'I.KS    AM)    PKACTirE    OF    PRUNING 


a  heavy  soil  at  an  elevation  of  100  feet  (80).  While  the 
principles  underlying  the  pruning  of  these  two  trees  may 
be  the  same,  the  application  may  be  radically  different. 

We  need,  first,  to  form  a  clear  understanding  of  what 
these  principles  are,  and,  second,  to  study  more  closely 
than  we  ever  have  in  the  past  their  application  to  our 
individual  orchards. 


FIG.     147— OLD     BARTI.ETT     FRUIT    SPURS    WHICH     BLOOM     YEARLY     BUT 

SELDOM   BEAR   FRUIT 

At  a  are  spurs  which  bloomed  but  set  no  fruit.  Some  of  them  have  produced 
blossom  buds  for  next  year.  At  b  are  scars  where  fruits  probably  set  and  in  the 
cases  of  the  larger  scars  possibly  ripened.  Perhaps,  however,  some  of  these  are 
scars  left  by  twigs  which  died. 

154.  Three  types  of  trees  are  grown  in  the  North- 
west :  the  so-called  open,  globe  or  vase-shaped  tree,  the 
center  leader  type,  and  the  modified  leader  type. 

154a.  In  the  vase  or  open  tree  three  to  five  branches  are 
chosen  to  form  the  framework  of  the  tree ;  any  tendency 
of  a  branch  to  assume  the  lead  is  suppressed ;  no  leader 
being  allowed  to  grow.  Each  of  the  three  to  five  branches 
is  given  equal  prominence  in  the  tree.  This  tree  was 
borrowed  from  the  French  and  has  been  modified  in  this 
country  to  suit  our  special  needs.  For  example,  in  parts 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


189 


of  the  Middle  West  and  in  California  the  tree  is  allowed 
to  carry  a  large  number  of  laterals,  summer  pruning  or 
shearing  being  employed  to  force  out  more  laterals  so 
as  to  shade  the  branches  from  sun  scald.  A  dense  com- 
pact tree  is  the  result.  In  the  Pacific  Northwest  the  term 
"globe"  or  "vase"  is  seldom  used,  but  almost  always  the 
term  employed  is  the  "open"  tree.  Instead  of  shearing 
to  produce  shade,  growers  prune  out  and  keep  the  tree 


FIG.    148 

YOUNG       YELLOW      NEWTOWN 

TREE    BEFORE    AUGUST 

PRUNING 


AFTER    AUGUST    PRUNING 

YOUNG    YELLOW 

NEWTOWN 


open  to  admit  more  light.     The  general  framework,  how- 
ever, of  California  and  Oregon  types  is  the  same. 

Our  orchardists  claim  that  the  advantage  of  the  open 
tree  is  that  it  allows  more  light  to  enter  the  tree,  thus 
causing  a  better  coloring  of  the  fruit ;  and  second,  it  pro- 
duces a  tree,  broad,  spreading  and  easy  to  keep  low 
headed.  The  objections  to  this  tree  are :  First,  it  is 
generally  structurally  weak,  since  the  scaffold  branches 
issue  at  one  point,  thus  making  weak  crotches.  If  one 
branch  breaks  out  the  tree  may  be  ruined.  Second,  it 
is  used  too  generally;  it  is  not  adapted  to  all  varieties 


190  I'KINCIPLES    AM)    I'KAITICK    OF    PRUNING 

under  all  conditions  found  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  [or 
elsewhere]. 

155.  The  so-called  leader  tree  has  been  used  largely  in 
the  East  on  the  Atlantic  Seaboard,  and  is  used  somewhat 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  especially  in  British  Columbia.  There 
are  a  few  orchards  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  where  the 
growers  believe  the  leader  to  be  the  best  type.  With  the 
leader  tree,  since  the  center  branch  is  always  'allowed 
to  have  the  ascendency,  the  tree  grows  more  or  less  to 
the  true  pyramid.  The  growers  obtain  very  large  trees, 
which  are,  however,  very  difficult  to  keep  low  headed 
and  open.  The  trees  are  probably  stronger,  there  being 
less  breakage  from  this  type  of  tree  than  from  the  so- 
called  open  tree. 


a 


FIG.    150— VIGOROUS  SHOOT   PRODUCED  FROM  OLD   BARTLETT  PEAR  SPUR 

The    shoot    was    pruned    and    is    now    in    healthy    condition.      Note    the    number    of 

fruit  buds   at  a. 

156.  The  modified  leader. — In  this  type  we  start  the 
trees  exactly  as  though  we  were  going  to  grow  the  cc'iitcr 
leader,  but,  beginning  with  the  second  to  the  fifth  year, 
the  leader  is  suppressed.  The  advantages  are  that  this 
type  of  tree  allows  us  to  space  the  branches  well,  to  build 
strong  crotches  and  main  frame  limbs,  and  at  the  same 
time  keeps  the  tree  relatively  close  to  the  ground.  This 
type  is  growing  in  favor  where  it  has  been  tried  through- 
out the  Northwest. 

With  any  of  these  types,  weak  trees  or  strong  trees 
may  be  built,  and  also  bushy  or  open  trees  may  be  se- 
cured with  any  one  of  the  three  systems.  [It  depends 
upon  the  handling.] 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


191 


157.  Form  of  tree  often  due  to  local  whim. — The  type 
of  growth  of  trees  in  one's  locality  may  determine  to  a 
certain  degree  what  system  shall  be  used.     For  example, 
Oregon  growers  wouldn't  grow  Wagener  ordinarily  as 
an  open  type  of  tree.     It  is  rather  an  upright  grower  for 
a  few  years,  but  later  becomes  a  feeble  grower.     On  the 
other     hand,     they 

should  not  think  oi 
growing  varieties 
like  T  o  m  p  k  i  n  s 
King  or  Northern 
Spy  as  center  trees, 
since  these  trees 
shoot  up  too 
straight,  are  too  big 
and  too  hard  to 
control.  Yellow 
Newtown  is  too 
often  pruned  as  a 
typical  open  tree. 
On  light  soils  it  be- 
comes very  weak 
when  12  or  15  years 
old.  A  modified 
leader,  or  in  some 
cases  even  the  old- 
fashioned  leader, 
would  be  better 
with  Yellow  New- 
town.  On  the  other 
hand,  on  some  very 
strong  loams,  Yel- 
low Newtown  can  be  handled  very  satisfactorily  when 
grown  as  an  open  or  globe-shaped  tree,  provided  a  little 
care  is  taken  in  spacing  the  branches  carefully  the  first 
two  or  three  years. 

158.  The  height  of  head  is  only  a  relative  term.     One 


FIG.  151 

HEAVY  HEADING  BACK  DEVELOPS  WOOD 
Young  vase-formed  apple  tree  which  shows  the 
effects  of  very  heavy  heading  back.  In  this  case 
the  pruner  cut  back  to  two-year  and  three-year 
wood.  Fruit  spurs  that  had  started  to  form  were 
forced  into  shoots.  The  entire  energies  of  the 
tree  have  been  temporarily  turned  into  shoot 
formation.  The  age  of  bearing  has  probably  been 
delayed  two  years  by  this  treatment. 


192  I'KI. \CIP1.KS    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


FIG.  152— TYPICAL  LEADER  TREE 
Five-year-old  Winter  Nelis  pear  be«un  as 
an  open  center,  but  typical  of  the  leader  type 
of  training.  The  lower  branches  are  not 
keeping  pace  with  the  upper  and  are  becom- 
ing weak  in  comparison.  To  save  or  restore 
balance  the  upper  branches  must  be  suppressed. 


FIG.     153  — THREE     DECKS    OF 

FRAME    LIMBS 

Note  distances  between  decks 
and  the  general  stocky  appearance 
of  the  tree. 

man  would  say  that  30 
inches  will  make  a  low- 
headed  tree;  another 
that  this  is  extremely 
high.  The  Pacific  Coast 
grows  low-headed  trees. 
Experience  has  shown 
that  these  are  the  easiest  to  care  for,  that  they  are  the 
most  economical  for  thinning,  harvesting,  spraying'  and 
pruning,  and  that,  we  can  shade  the  trunks  and  main 
scaffold  limbs  better  with  this  type  of  tree,  than  with  a 
high-headed  tree.  In  parts  of  the  Inland  Empire  growers 
often  head  their  trees  at  8  or  9  inches.  Many  Jonathan 
trees  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  district,  and  in  certain  por- 
tions of  Idaho,  eastern  Oregon  and  Washington,  are 
headed  in  this  way  and  are  giving  satisfactory  results. 
Under  such  conditions  they  must  protect  the  trees  as 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


193 


FIG.    154 

MODIFIED    LEADER 

Five-year  Bartlett  pear 

after  pruning. 


FIG.    155 
MODIFIED     LEADER 

Same  tree  as  Fig. 
154  pruned.  Note  how 
little  wood  has  been 
removed  in  thinning 
out;  almost  no  heading 
back. 


FIG.    156 
GOOD  MODIFIED 

LEADER 

Five-year   Bartlett  pear 
before    pruning. 


much  as  possible  against  sun  scald. 
In  Western  Oregon  20  to  25  inches  is 
considered  a  better  height  of  head.  Many  growers  have 
felt  that  20  to  25  inches  is  the  proper  height  for  apples  and 
pears.  Peaches  should  be  headed  as  low  as  they  can  be 
grown  ;  cherries  at  about  25  inches  ;  prunes  30  to  35  inches. 
It  was  formerly  believed  that  walnuts  should  be  headed 
very  high,  7  or  8  feet,  and  no  laterals  allowed  to 
grow  the  first  few  years ;  but  this  is  now  considered  a 
mistake.  About  35  inches  will  make  a  splendid  head  for 
walnuts. 

159.  Season  for  pruning. — In  the  Northwest,  only  two 
seasons  for  pruning  are  considered ;  namely,  winter  and 
summer.  There  is  no  question  that  in  the  Northwest, 
where  mild  winter  conditions  prevail,  winter  pruning  may 
be  done  safely  in  most  years  at  any  time  when  the  trees 
are  dormant.  In  sections  of  severe  winter  conditions,  de- 
laying the  pruning  as  late  as  possible  before  the  growth 
starts  in  the  spring  seems  to  be  wisest.  Very  rarely  good 


194 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


fruit  growers  would  advise  fall  pruning  in  the  Xorthwest, 
unless  one  has  such  a  large  acreage  that  it  is  impossible 
to  complete  the  work  unless  the  pruning  is  commenced 
early  in  the  season,  if  it  becomes  necessary  to  prune 


FIG.    157 

MODIFIED  LEADER 
This  splendid  type  of 
modified  leader  tree,  a 
five-year-old  Wagener 
apple,  was  summer 
pruned  in  July  and 
photographed  in  Janu- 
ary. Note  the  amount 
of  after-growth.  Th's 
indicates  that  the  tree 
was  pruned  at  about 
the  right  period. 

trees  in  fall  or  very 
early  winter,  growers 
prune  the  older  trees 
fi  r  s  t ,  leaving  the 
younger  ones  for  the 
last.  We  should  cau- 
tion against  pruning 
trees  when  they  are 
frozen.  Much  heart  rot  and  die-back  have  resulted  from 
pruning  frozen  trees.  It  is  possible  to  prune  trees  some- 
what even  after  they  come  out  fully  in  the  spring. 

160.  Three  lessons  in  pruning  young  trees. — Pruning 


FIG.    158 
EXAMPLE  OF  UNEQUAL  GROWTH 

Branch  A  is  growing  at  the  expense  of  the 
other  branches.  It  should  therefore  be  sup- 
pressed. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES  195 

young  trees  depends  upon  three  great  fundamental  prin- 
ciples. If  these  are  mastered  the  problem  of  pruning 
young  trees  wUl  become  rather  simple,  but  unless  they 
are  mastered  it  is  difficult  to  develop  strong,  well- 
balanced  young  trees. 

161.  Choosing  and  spacing  the  frame  branches. — For 
an  open  or  a  modified  leader  type  of  tree,  four  or  five 
branches  are  recommended.  [In  eastern  practice  many 
growers  start  with  six  to  eight,  but  prune  out  some  of 
these  after  the  head  has  been  fairly  well  developed ;  say 
when  the  trees  are  5  to  10  years  old.]  For  the 
typical  leader  tree  it  docs  not  make  much  difference,  as 
from  year  to  year  new  branches  are  added.  In  Oregon 


FIG.    159 

GOOD    VEGETATIVE    RESPONSE    FROM    THINNING    BARTLETT    PEAR    SPURS 

Note  the  numerous  fruit  buds  at  s  on  spurs  which  did  not  push  into  long  branches; 

.  terminal  buds  at  t  and  axillary  fruit  buds  at  a  on  one-year  shoots. 

the  four  or  five-branched  tree  is  preferred.  While  it  may 
be  true  that  the  three-branched  tree  will  produce  three 
branches  that  average  larger  in  diameter  than  if  four  or 
five  are  allowed  to  grow,  nevertheless,  the  three- 
branched  tree  is  considered  a  dangerous  one ;  that  it 
is  structurally  weak ;  that  if  one  of  the  three  branches  is 
lost  the  tree  is  practically  ruined  ;  whereas,  with  four  or 
five  frame  limbs,  one  may  lose  a  branch  and  still  balance 
the  tree  in  such  a  way  as  to  save  it.  [This  is  the  main 
idea  with  the  eastern  growers  who  start  with  more  than 
the  required  number  of  frame  limbs.] 


196 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


The  first  lesson,  then,  is  to  choose  four  or  five  well- 
spaced  branches,  having  them  issue  in  a  spiral  around 
the  tree,  if  possible,  and  having  them  as  far  apart  as  they 
can  be  conveniently  spaced  [not  less  than  a  handbreadth, 
preferably  two  handbreadths  or  more].  The  farther 
i  _  ,  _  apart  they  are  spaced, 

t^e  stronger  and  better 


the  better  the  tree  ob- 
tained. To  do  this,  one 
must  not  neglect  the 
tree  as  soon  as  it  is 
headed,  but  must  watch 
it  very  carefully  the 
first  month  or  two  after 
it  is  set  out.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  rub  cer- 
tain undesirable  buds 
off,  to  remove  certain 
undesirable  branches, 
or  possibly  to  suppress 
from  time  to  time  cer- 
tain branches  which 
tend  to  run  away  with 
the  tree.  By  observing 
these  simple  rules  one 
can  build  a  stronger 
tree.  It  is  for  this  rea- 
son that  growers  often 
advocate  cutting  tin- 
tree  at  25  or  28  inches 
instead  of  at  20  inche- 
at  setting  time,  and  then  spacing  the  branches  from 
as  near  the  ground  as  they  can  get  them  up  to  the 
top  of  the  trunk.  However,  if  the  tree  is  left  to  itself. 
the  branches  will  all  develop  near  the  top  of  the  trunk. 
and  the  tree  will  be  weak.  Only  by  careful  watching  can 


FIG.    160 

FIVE-YEAR-OLD  WAGENER  APP1  E  TREE 
This  tree  of  less  than  average  vigor  was 
pruned  in  July.  The  photo  was  taken  in 
October.  Note  that  there  has  been  practically 
no  growth  response  as  the  result  of  pruning. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


197 


the  extra  increase  in  height  of 
head  be  made  of  any  material 
advantage. 

162.  Keep  main  branches 
properly  dominant. — When  one 
branch  tends  to  grow  at  the 
expense  of  the  rest  of  the  tree 
the  weaker  branches  gradually 
become  side  branches  to  the 
two  or  three  remaining  stronger 
ones.  Proper  pruning  will 
obviate  this.  The  average 
primer  does  one  of  two  things : 
cuts  the  tree  level  across  the 
top,  or  cuts  the  weakest  wood 
most  and  the  strongest  wood 
least.  The  former  will  never 
build  a  strong,  well-balanced 
tree,  because  in  doing  this  no 
attention  is  paid  to  the  relation 
of  one  branch  to  another.  [The 
other  practice  is  erroneously 
based  on  the  principle]  that  the 
more  wood  is  cut,  the  more  it 
grows  (83).  In  other  words,  it 
is  concluded  that  if  wood  is 
weak  and  is  cut  back  it  will 
grow  stronger! 

It  is  true  that  the  more  a  tree 
is  pruned  back  as  a  whole  while 
dormant  the  more  will  be  the 
resulting  growth;  that  heavy 
heading-in  of  a  tree  during 
winter  means  a  heavy  after- 
growth. This,  however,  has  to 
do  with  the  tree  as  a  whole  and  has  little  to  do  with  the  re- 
lation of  one  branch  to  another.  If  a  strong  branch  is 


FIG.     161— HEADING     BACK 
MAKES    GROWTHS 

The  lower  left  fork  of  this  Yel- 
low Newtown  apple  tree  was 
headed  back  rather  severely,  the 
upper  right-hand  one  only  mod- 
erately. From  the  former  four 
shoots  and  three  fruit  spurs  have 
developed;  from  the  latter  three 
shoots  and  nine  spurs.  This  photo 
shows  that  heading  back,  whether 
heavy  or  light,  tends  to  increase 
the  amount  of  shoot  growth  in  the 
tree.  However,  heavy  heading 
back  affords  a  greater  stimulus  to 
shoot  formation  and  less  to  spur 
making  than  does  moderate  head- 
ing back. 


I'KIM  II'I.KS    AM)    I'R. \ITK1-;    01-     I'kl'M.NC? 


in  close  proximity  to  a 
weak  one,  the  best  way 
t«>  strengthen  the  weak 
branch  is  by  cutting 
back  the  strong1  one. 
The  development  of  tin- 
weak  branch  will  be  in 
proportion  to  its  leaf 
and  branch  area;  if 
there  is  a  large  amount, 
there  will  be  a  heavy 
demand  on  the  sap,  and 
the  weak  branch  will 
develop.  I>y  limiting 
the  branches  and  leaves 
on  the  strong  branch, 
growth  is  restricted. 
As  a  result,  the  follow- 
ing year  there  will  be 
le<s  discrepancy  be- 
tween the  development 
of  the  two  branches.  A 
continuation  of  the 
practice  should  lead  to 
a  balance  between  the 
two.  The  heading  back 
should  be  done,  then,  not  so  much  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  tree  as  a  whole,  as  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
relation  of  one  branch  to  another. 

Cut  the  strongest  branch  the  hardest  ;  cut  the  second 
branch  in  vigor  not  quite  so  much  ;  the  third  in  vigor  still 
less,  until  the  weakest  branch  is  reached.  Then  cut  that 
one  least.  It  is  only  by  suppressing  the  strong  branches, 
limiting  the  number  of  leaves  and  buds,  that  one  can  pos- 
sibly hope  to  encourage  the  weaker  branches.  If  it  is 
desired  to  grow  a  modified  tree,  or  a  leader-type  tree. 
the  only  difference  that  need  be  made  in  this  pruning 


FIG.    162 

GOOD    EFFECT    OF    JULY    PRUNING 
This  vigorous  five-year  Wagener  anple  tree 
was  pruned  in  July  and  photographed   in   Oc- 
tober.     A    vigorous    response    of   new    shoots 
averaging  a   foot  followed  the  trimming. 


PRUNING  TOUNG  TREES 


199 


would  be  to  choose  one  branch  for  a  leader  and  not  cut 
it  back  quite  so  heavily,  to  maintain  that  position. 

A  great  deal  of  so-called  corrective  pruning  may  be 
done.  That  is,  a  tree  four  or  five  years  old  may  develop 
two  branches  weaker  than  the  rest  of  the  tree.  These 
may  be  encouraged  to  grow  stronger  and  larger.  To  do 
this,  prune  them  very  lightly,  and  prune  the  other  parts 
of  the  tree  more  heavily  so  as  to  encourage  the  two 
weaker  branches. 

163.  Avoid  sharp-angled,  equally  balanced  crotches.  — 
(Compare  Figs.  163,  164.)  Examine  the  average  frame 
branch  of  a  tree  carefully,  from  the  point  where  it  leaves 
the  main  trunk  up  to 
its  last  year's  growth. 
Its  development  will 
probably  have  been 
about  as  follows  :  The 
first  year  the  branch 
was  cut  back  it  forced 
out  laterals,  all  except 
two  of  which  were  re- 
moved. These  two 
were  cut  equally  and  in 
most  cases  were  not 
spaced  very  far  apart. 
The  next  year  on  each 
of  these  the  same  treat- 
ment was  repeated. 
Two  branches  were 
chosen  and  these  were 
cut  equally.  The  re- 
sult is  that  the  branches 
all  over  the  tree  are  in 
pairs  of  equal  length, 
and  form  very  sharp 

fork*;  Thi'c      m  a  \r  A  c 

US      malCCS 

weak    branches    which 


FIG.  163—  GOOD  EXAMPLE  OF  PROPER 
BALANCE  BETWEEN  BRANCHES 

N°te    that   whenever    there    >s    a    crotch    in 
most   cases   one   branch    is   stronger  than   the 

*  AA  are  bad  forks  due  to  even 


200 


i'KlXC  II'I.KS    AM)    J'KACTICK    OK    JKf.\l\r, 


will  break  easily,  as  the  stress  and  strain  all  come  at 
critical  points  ;  namely,  at  the  numerous  balanced  crotches 
To  avoid  this  condition,  treat  each  of  the  main  branches 
as  a  leader.  This  means  that  when  two  branches  arc- 
chosen,  they  shall  be  as  far  apart  as  possible.  Second, 
in  pruning  cut  one  harder  than  the  other.  Thus  one 
will  become  a  leader  and  the  other  a  side  branch.  If  this 

, __ ^_ „      process     is     continued, 

the  whole  branch  will 
become  a  strong  leader 
with  a  great  many  side 
..branches  which  dis- 
tribute the  strain  in 
such  a  way  as  to  reduce 
breakage  to  a  mini- 
mum. 


164.  Classes  of  non- 
bearing  trees.  —  IM>  r 
convenience  of  discus- 
sion, young  and  non- 
bearing  trees  may  be 
divided  into  three 
classes.  First,  those 
from  one  to  four  years 
of  age.  This  is  the 
formative,  the  body- 
building period  of  the 
young  tree.  Second, 
the.  period  from  four  to 
seven  years  of  age,  the 
critical  age,  a  transition  period  from  the  body  build- 
ing on  the  one  hand  to  the  heavy  fruiting  on  the 
other.  With  Yellow  Newtown,  Baldwin,  \Yinter  Nelis. 
Cornice  and  many  other  trees,  pruning  at  this  time  will, 
to  a  very  large  degree,  determine  the  fruitfulness  of  the 
trees  for  a  number  of  years.  Third,  those  trees  from 
seven  to  twelve  years,  which  have  reached  the  bearing 


FIG.    164 

BALANCED  AND  UNBALANCED  PRUNING 
Note  that  at  A  A,  equal  cutting  has  resulted 
in  nearly  equal  strength  of  branches;  at  B  B, 
unequal  cutting  (the  desirab'e  rne'hod)  h^s 
resulted  in  completely  destroying  such  bal- 
ance by  making  stronger  crotches. 


FIG.   165— RE1NVIGORATED  TOP  OF  OLD  PEAR  TREE 

Dehorned   Bartlett  pear  formed  many  new,  stron?  shoots  and  fruit  spurs  above,  but 
showed  little  change  in  spurs  below.     Thinning  of  top  probably  better. 


202 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


but  as  yet  have  not  borne  a  commercial  crop.  Before 
taking  up  the  details  of  pruning  these  three  classes,  sum- 
mer pruning  and  its  relation  to  such  trees  should  be  con- 
sidered. 

165.  Summer  pruning  young  non-bearing  trees. — Of 
recent  years  we  have  heard  much  about  summer  pruning, 
which,  with  many  fruit  growers,  has  become  a  fad.  Many 
people  are  expecting  too  much  from  it. 


FIG.  166— MODERATE  PRUNING  STIMULATED  SHOOT  FORMATION 
In  this  old  Tompkins  King  apple  tree  two  and  three  years  ago  moderate  prun- 
ing stimulated  the  formation  of  a  rather  large  number  of  medium  long  shoots. 
These  have  not  been  headed  back  and  have  consequently  developed  large  numbers 
of  fruit  spurs.  Many  of  the  small  spur-bearing  branches  should  now  be  removed 
to  afford  the  remaining  ones  ample  light  throughout  their  length.  Thinning  out  is 
more  needed  than  heading  back  here,  though  a  limited  amount  of  heading  back 
will  tend  to  keep  the  tree  from  growing  too  high. 

In  many  cases  not  much  pruning  will  be  done  during 
the  first  summer  of  the  tree's  life,  as  the  trees  often  do 
not  make  very  much  growth  the  first  season,  but  where 
they  do  make  a  vigorous  growth  by  the  middle  of  June, 
or  early  July,  it  will  often  be  found  an  advantage  to  head 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES  203 

the  trees  at  that  time,  cutting  them  back  about  the  same 
way  as  they  might  be  cut  back  the  following  spring. 
That  is,  terminal  growths  12  to  30  inches  long  should  be 
cut  back  to  the  point  where  new  laterals  are  desired  for 
the  future  body-building  of  the  tree.  With  a  tree  running 
to  one  or  two  branches  at  the  expense  of  all  the  others, 
it  may  be  well  to  pinch  these  strong  branches,  to  hold 
them  back  for  the  time  being,  and  thus  encourage  the 
weaker  branches  to  grow. 


FIG.     167— PEAR    SPURS    WHICH    HAVE    BORNE    WELL    IN    PREVIOUS    YEARS 
At  a  are  spurs  which    bloomed  but  set  no   fruit,  again    producing  buds    for  the 
following  season's  crop.     At  b  the  same  except  that  no  fruit   buds  formed. 

By  the  second  year,  nearly  all  these  trees  can  be  greatly 
benefited  by  summer  pruning  any  time  from  the  latter 
part  of  May  up  to  the  middle  of  July,  generally  about  the 
middle  of  June.  This  pruning  consists  of  cutting  back 
the  rank  terminal  growth  so  as  to  force  out  and  allow 
the  laterals  to  make  a  good  growth  and  become  hardened 
before  fall.  In  this  way  a  whole  year  may  be  gained  in 
forming  the  framework  of  the  trees.  A  good  practice  to 


204 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


follow  with  such  trees  is  to  do  most  of  the  heading-back 
in  June  and  most  of  the  thinning  out  in  March  or  April, 
or  whenever  the  winter  pruning  is  done.  However, 
should  the  trees,  after  they  are  pruned  in  June,  make  such 
a  rank  growth  that  they  need  some  topping-back  again 
the  following  spring,  by  all  means  do  it. 

In  nearly  all  cases,  it  will  be  advisable  to  do  some  top- 
ping-back of  the  terminals,  or  else  the  terminal  bud  will 

incline  to  continue  this 
growth,  producing  a 
long,  leggy  branch.  If 
no  topping  is  done  in 
spring,  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  give  these 
shoots  a  heavy  heading- 
back  in  summer  to  pre- 
vent their  becoming 
too  long  before  produc- 
ing desirable  laterals. 
During  the  summer 
any  undesirable  growth 
should  be  removed 
from  these  young  trees 
— branches  which  will 
never  be  of  any  value 
to  the  tree  and  are 
growing  at  the  expense  of  some  branch  which  should  be 
developed.  Caution,  however,  must  be  exercised  against 
the  too  strenuous  thinning-out  of  young  trees,  especially 
the  thinning-out  of  lateral  branches. 

This  pruning  young  trees,  while  it  does  not,  as  a  rule, 
directly  induce  fruitfulness,  will  tend  to  bring  the  trees 
up  to  the  critical  period  in  much  better  condition  than 
otherwise,  since  it  tends  to  balance  the  tree;  and  since-  it 
distributes  the  pruning  over  two  periods  of  the  year,  it 
eliminates  the  necessity  for  very  vigorous  pruning  which 
many  fruit  growers  give  trees.  The  heavy  winter  prun- 


FIG.  16S— TOO  MUCH  SHADING  BY  UPPER 

BRANCHES  KILLED  THIS  TWIG 
This  old,  much  branched  Italian  Prune  fruit 
snur  is  being  starved  by  lack  of  1'ght.  Some 
of  its  branches  are  already  dead;  the  living 
ones  lack  in  vigor.  Only  a  few  fruit  buds  and 
these  near  the  tips.  Soon  the  whole  spur  will 
die  as  the  result  of  too  much  shade  from 
branches  above. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES  205 

ing  given  young  trees  serves  as   a  stimulus  and  often 
causes  too  much  vegetative  growth  (83). 

166.  Objections  to  summer  pruning. — Some  growers 
are  opposed  to  summer  pruning  on  the  ground  that  it 
weakens  the  trees,  that  it  is  devitalizing,  that  it  is  unwise 
to  remove  any  of  the  leaves  as  they  are  the  "lungs"  and 


FIG.    169— ABUNDANCE    OF    FRUIT    SPURS    IN    THE    LIGHT 
This  limb  in  the  upper  part  of  an  Italian  Prune  tree  shows  that  the  spurs  have 
had   abundant   light.     Note   the    individual    spurs,   and    the    small    fruiting    limbs    are 
short,  stocky  and  vigorous.     However,  it  would  be  desirable  to  remove  a  few  of  the 
smaller  branches  to  prevent  too  heavy  shading  of  those  below. 


206 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


manufacturing  organs  of  the  tree  (29).  It  would  be. 
however,  only  in  very  extreme  cases  that  summer  prun- 
ing would  ever  be  devitalizing,  certainly  where  one  makes 
the  single  summer  pruning.  Such  pruning,  in  some  cases, 
might  give  increased  vigoj.  In  others  very  little  differ- 
ence will  be  noted.  In  still  others,  the  growth  may  be 
modified  to  the  extent  that  there  is  less  vegetative 
growth,  but  even  in  the  last  case  there  is  modification 
rather  than  devitalization. 

The  result  of  a  single  summer  pruning,  as  recom- 
mended for  these  young  trees,  is  not  so  much  a  question 
of  vigor  as  it  is  a  question  of  change  in  direction  of 

growth  or  energy.  The 
clipping-back  of  a  ter- 
minal forces  the  growth 
into  desirable,  new  lat- 
eral framework  rather 
than  into  a  useless,  addi- 
tional terminnal  growth. 
There  are  cases  where 
frequent  summer  prun- 
ing at  short  intervals 
during  the  summer  has  a 
tendency  to  check  or 
dwarf  a  tree;  for  ex- 
ample, in  growing  dwarf 
trees,  we  must  not  only 
have  a  dwarfing  stock, 
but  we  must  practice 
frequent  pinching  back 
of  shoots  (Chapter 
XVI).  Again  walnut 
trees  may  be  dwarfed  by 
FIG.  170-pARTiAi.  DEHORNING  FAILED  removal  of  all  lateral 

Old    Italian    Prune    tree    partially    dehorned  growth    for    a    period    of 
four  years  ago.     Note  that   the  treatment   ap-  ,-p,  , 

parently  had  little  influence  upon  fhe  vieor  of  VCarS.         1  HCSC     last     tWO 

the    small     fruiting    branches     and     indivHual  ~QCPC      hnwpvpr      urp    PY- 

fruit  spurs  of  the  limb  not  cut  back.  CaSCS,     HOWCVCr,    ar< 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


207 


treme  and  represent  excessively  frequent  pruning.  The 
greatest  danger  of  devitalizing  young  trees  does  not  come 
from  a  single  summer  pruning,  but  rather  from  allowing 
too  heavy  bearing  of  young  trees. 

167.  Trees  four  to  seven  years  of  age  have  now  gone 
through  their  formative  period.  They  should  have  good 
trunks  and  frame  limbs,  and  should  be  approaching  that 
period  when  they  can  begin  to  bear  heavy  crops.  Sum- 
mer pruning  for 
these  trees,  as  com- 
pared with  the 
younger  trees,  must 
be  modified  with 
the  idea  of  trying 
to  induce  fruitful- 
ness  directly  if  pos- 
possible.  The  prun- 
ing will  generally 
come  considerably 
later  with  these 
older  trees. 

There  is  no  defi- 
nite time  to  set.  It 
is  recommended, 
however,  that  the 
pruning  be  done  at 
the  time  the  termi- 
nal buds  are  form- 
ing on  the  ends  of 
the  shoots.  Note 
that  the  leaves  are 
beginning  to  get 
larger  on  the  ends 
of  the  twigs,  and 
the  terminal  buds 
are  forming.  At 
that  time  the  termi- 


FIG.  171— HEAVY  PRUNING  MAKES  FOR  WOOD 
This  five-year  Yellow  Newtown  has  been  heavily 
pruned  each  year.  Last  year  it  received  a  light 
thinning  out  and  a  comparatively  heavy  heading 
back.  When  compared  with  Fig.  173,  a  tree  of  the 
same  age  and  variety,  it  shows  how  heavy  pruning 
tends  to  stimulate  wood  growth  as  opposed  to  fruit 
production.  Note  the  comparatively  few  fruit  spurs 
on  the  two-year  wood.  The  tree  has  been  com- 
pelled to  devote  its  energies  mainly  to  shoot  for- 
mation. 


208 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


nal  growth  may  be  cut  back  to  the  point  where  it  is  de- 
sired to  force  out  new  laterals  for  another  year's  growth. 
The  cutting  at  this  time  seems  to  cause  a  thickening  of 
the  branches,  probably  an  accumulation  of  tissues  around 
the  buds. 

With  some  varieties,  probably,  it  will  lead  to  direct 
fruiting  the  following  season ;  with  others,  however,  it 
will  simply  tend  to  keep  the  trees  in  balance,  and  prob- 
ably encourage  earlier  fruiting  than  would  otherwise  be 
_  true.  That  is,  re- 
sults may  come  in 
two  or  three  years 
rather  than  in  one 
year.  If  this  prun- 
ing is  done  at 
about  the  right 
time,  very  little 
secondary  growth 
will  take  place, 
and  what  does  will 
naturally  be  very 
small.  Of  course 
in  many  cases 
these  trees,  four 
to  seven  years  of 
age,  do  not  hard- 
en-up until  late  in 
September  or  even  in  October,  and  then  it  would  be  too 
late  to  do  any  pruning  to  advantage.  Even  though  sum- 
mer pruning  with  these  trees  might  not  lead  to  an  increase 
in  fruiting  the  following  summer,  it  would  be  a  distinct 
help  in  keeping  the  trees  in  balance,  and  in  eliminating 
the  excessive  cutting  which  might  otherwise  be  necessary 
the  following  spring. 

168.  Trees  eight  to  twelve  years  old,  which  should  be 
in  fruiting  but  have  never  borne,  have  almost  always 
been  over-stimulated— over-pruned,  over-tilled,  over-irri- 


FIG.    172 

VIGOROUS    GROWTHS    FOLLOW    THINNING 
Bartlett   pear  spurs    were  thinned   out  of   old   tree. 
Vigorous    shoots    resulted.      At    t    are    terminal    fruit 
buds;   at  a   axillary  fruit  buds  on   last  season's    (one 
year)    shoots. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


209 


gated,  or  a  combination  of  stimuli — which  results  in  forc- 
ing rank  wood  growth,  producing  heavy,  large  leaves, 
but  little  or  no  fruit.  The  remedy  is  to  remove  the 
stimulus,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  prune  several  times  a 
year. 

Summer  pruning  for  such  trees  will  come  probably 
more  about  the  time  very  young  trees  are  pruned :  that 
is,  along  in  June. 
At  each  time  when 
the  terminal 
growth  threatens 
to  become  exces- 
sively long,  it 
should  be  cut  back 
and  the  trees 
thinned  out  some- 
what. The  follow- 
ing spring  a  little 
more  thinning  and 
p run  ing-out  m  a  y 
be  done  to  advan- 
tage. The  applica- 
tion of  summer 
pruning  to  these 
trees  should  be 
largely  a  distribu- 
tion of  the  pruning 
over  two  periods, 
thus  avoiding  an 
excessive  pruning. 
Only  in  very  rare 
cases  can  one  ex- 
pect direct  results 
from  such  pruning.  Results  will  come  indirectly  in  bring- 
ing the  trees  back  to  their  normal  balance.  It  often  be- 
comes necessary  to  reduce  the  amount  of  tillage  or  irrigation 
given  such  trees,  and  in  cases  where  the  growth  is  ab- 


FIG.   173 

FRUIT  SPURS  DUE  TO  GOOD  PRUNING 
Five-year  Yellow  Newtown  apple  tree  rather 
heavily  pruned  each  year  until  last,  when  no  winter 
pruning  was  done.  When  compared  with  Fig.  171, 
a  tree  of  the  same  age  and  variety,  it  shows  how 
light,  as  opposed  to  heavy,  pruning  tends  to  throw 
a  tree  into  bearing.  Note  the  many  fruit  spurs  on 
the  two-year-old  wood  (enlarged  in  frontispiece). 
During  the  preceding  season  a  large  part  of  the 
energies  of  the  tree  was  devoted  to  fruit  spur 
formation. 


210 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


normally  excessive  it  is  sometimes  found  advisable  even 
to  check  this  by  growing  crops,  such  as  hay  or  grain,  be- 
tween the  trees. 

169.  Applications  of  pruning  principles  to  young  trees. 
At  the  time  the  tree  is  given  its  first  pruning  we  should 
definitely  settle  the  question  of  head  (158).  Most  growers 

after  they  have  headed  the 
tree,  pay  no  more  attention  to 
it  until  the  following  spring, 
when  they  are  ready  for  the 
second  pruning.  In  many  cases 
this  is  a  mistake.  It  will  be 
found  very  advisable  in  May 
and  June  to  go  through  the  or- 
chard and  look  over  the  newly 
set  trees  carefully.  At  this 
time,  certain  very  small  shoots 
or  buds  should  be  rubbed  off. 
If  one  branch  is  growing  at  the 
expense  of  all  the  others,  it  may 
be  suppressed.  The  orchardist 
may  do  very  much  the  first 
year  to  start  the  tree  in  the 
proper  way,  and  to  put  it  in 
better  condition  for  the  second 
year's  growth. 

Only  in  rare  cases  will  it  be 
advisable  to  give  the  trees  a 
systematic  pruning  the  first 
year,  because  it  will  be  only 
occasionally  that  the  trees  will  make  a  sufficiently 
rank  growth  to  warrant  such  a  pruning.  Many  young 
trees  do  not  make  much  top  the  first  year;  they  are  build- 
ing roots  and  getting  firmly  established.  In  cases,  how- 
ever, where  they  have  made  a  strong  growth,  it  is  sug- 
gested that  the  trees  be  summer-pruned  as  soon  as  they 
have  made  sufficient  growth,  so  that  new  laterals  may  be 


FIG.     174— TYPICAL    FIVE-YEAR 
WINTER  NELIS  PEAR 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


211 


formed  to  advantage.  Those  shoots  that  are  making  such 
growth  should  be  pinched  back,  provided  this  pruning 
can  be  done  not  later  than  the  middle  of  July  and  pref- 
erably in  June.  Such  laterals  should  be  cut  back  to 
stubs  from  8  to  15  inches  long,  depending,  of  course,  up- 
on the  vigor  of  the  . , = . 

branch.  One  may  make 
the  mistake,  however, 
of  pinching  them  back 
so  hard  as  to  force  the 
new  laterals  too  near 
the  main  crotch,  and 
thus  make  a  very  close, 
heavy  crotch  which 
will  pile  up  in  years  to 
come. 

170.  The  second 
spring,  unless  the  start 
was  made  the  first  year, 
one  should  choose  defi- 
nitely the  shape  of  the 
tree  to  be  grown  ;  either 
the  open,  the  leader,  or 
the  modified  leader 
tree.  If  the  tree  was 
summer-pruned  the 
previous  season,  that 
question  should  have 
been  settled  at  the  time 
of  pruning.  If  the 
leader  or  the  modified 
leader  is  the  type,  choose  one  branch  to  maintain  the  lead 
and  prune  this  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  maintain  such 
a  lead.  If  the  open  tree  has  been  decided  upon,  choose 
the  four  or  five  branches,  spaced  as  far  apart  as  possible, 
and  cut  these  back  according  to  their  strength,  cutting 
the  strongest  branches  the  most  and  the  weakest  ones 


FIG.    175— BRUIT   SPURS    FORM    ON    LAST 

YEAR'S   SHOOTS 

On  this  Italian  Prune  branch  the  main  stem 
from  a  to  b  is  three  years  old.  Two  years  ago 
three  shoots,  b  to  c  and  two  fruit  spurs,  b,  b, 
were  formed.  Last  year  three  shoots,  c,  d, 
developed  from  the  terminal  buds  of  the 
preceding  year's  growth  and  many  fruit  spurs 
sprang  from  the  lateral  buds.  The  lateral 
buds  on  these  fruit  spurs  are  fruit  buds;  the 
terminal  ones  leaf  buds. 


212 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    1'R L'NLNCi 


the  least.  One  will  then  have  five  main  branches  with  a 
few  laterals  on  each.  It  is  customary  to  remove  all  these 
laterals.  [But  "custom"  should  be  based  on  principle. 
Each  case  should,  therefore,  be  decided  by  the  pruner's 
best  judgment.  Cut  or  leave  the  laterals  as  judgment 
may  dictate.]  By  the  middle  of  June,  the  young  tree 
should  have  made  sufficient  growth  to  allow  for  summer 
pruning.  Each  branch  should  be  pinched  back  so  as  to 
leave  it  from  8  to  15  inches  long,  cutting  according  to 
vigor,  always  suppressing  the  stronger. 

171.  In  the  third  spring  each  of  the  original  five  main 
frame  limbs  will  have  from  one  to  a  dozen  lateral  or  addi- 
tional branches.  It  is 
customary  to  remove 
all  but  one  from  each 
main  branch,  so  that 
when  the  tree  is  pruned 
there  will  be  ten 
branches  on  the  tree 
where  there  were  five 
before.  A  great  deal  of 
care  should  be  used  in 
selecting  these  new 
branches.  The  two 
branches  on  each  frame 
limb  should  be  spaced 
as  far  apart  as  possible. 
Of  course  avoid  tlu- 
choosing  of  laterals 
which  will  tend  to  grow 
in  toward  the  center  of 
the  tree.  Then  avoid 
cutting  these  two  lat- 
erals equally.  Choose 

FIG.    176-FIVE-YEAR  NEWTOWN  PRUNED  ()ne    branch  "which     Will 
The  winter  pruning  has  been   light  because  \nnA**~       ,11, 

the  tree  is  reaching  the  critical  stage  when  it  grOW  as  a  leader  ail(l  do 
should  begin  to  bear.  Heavy  pruning  might  A.  f  this  Knrlr  nilitc 

keep   it  from   bearing. 


PRUNING  VOUXC,  TREES 


as  heavily  as  the  second 
branch,  which  will 
make  a  side  branch. 

By  the  second 
[third?]  summer,  these 
trees  should  be  so  well 
established  that  by 
June  they  may  be  given 
a  second  pruning.  Each 
branch  left  on  the  tree 
will  have  grown  15  to 
18,  or  in  some  cases,  as 
much  as  30  inches  long. 
Instead  of  letting  them 
go  the  entire  summer, 
whenever  they  have 
-made  sufficient  growth, 
they  may  be  cut  back 
in  order  to  force  out  a 
new  set  of  laterals.  The 
following  spring  in  all 
probability  about  the 
only  pruning  that  will 
have  to  be  done  will  be  a  little  thinning  out  here 
and  there.  In  case  the  laterals  which  come  out  as  a 
result  of  the  pruning  in  June  have  made  a  very  vigorous 
growth,  and  are  getting  too  rangy,  they  may  be  cut  back 
somewhat,  although  it  will  be  in  only  extreme  cases  that 
much  cutting  will  have  to  be  done  on  these  branches. 
Moderate  clipping  back  is  often  advisable  to  prevent  the 
terminal  bud  from  continuing  growth,  and  producing  long, 
willowy  growth.  So  this  pruning  may  be  continued  for 
two  or  three  years,  never  leaving,  as  a  rule,  more  than 
about  two  branches  where  one  was  before. 

172.  The  fourth  year. — At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
year,  a  modification  of  the  pruning  may  be  made.  It  is 
coming  time  now  to  let  down  on  the  heavy  pruning.  If 


FIG.    177— FIVE-YEAR   APPLE   PRUNED 

PREVIOUS    SUMMER 

Note    the    length    of   the   shoots   which    re- 
sulted from  summer  pruning. 


214 


PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


one  practices  as  severe  pruning  as  during  the  previous 
years,  the  tendency  will  be  to  force  the  tree  into  wood. 
Many  growers  thin  out  the  laterals  excessively,  force  an 
enormous  terminal  growth,  and  cut  back  this  terminal 
growth  vigorously,  thus  forcing  out  new  laterals.  We 

believe  that  too  many 
growers  make  a  mis- 
take by  pruning  too 
vigorously  at  this  time. 
It  would  be  an  advan- 
tage to  leave  more  lat- 
eral wood  than  most 
growers  leave.  Just 
how  much  is  advisable 
to  leave  in  all  cases  is 
very  hard  to  say,  be- 
cause the  relation  of 
shade  to  the  formation 
of  fruit  spurs  or  fruit 
buds  has  not  been 
worked  out  very  defi- 
nitely (66  to  69).  Until 
that  can  be  done,  it 
won't  be  possible  to 
give  very  explicit  di- 
rections, but  we  would 
rather  let  the  tree  grow  a  little  brushy,  because  after  it 
comes  into  bearing  this  excess  wood  may  very  easily  be 
thinned  out. 

The  summer  pruning  now  changes  from  the  former 
early  summer  pruning  in  early  June  to  the  time  the  termi- 
nal buds  form  (66).  The  rule,  then,  with  trees  from  four 
to  seven  years  old  is  simply  to  cut  back  the  terminals 
sufficiently  so  they  will  not  run  away  with  the  tree,  and 
thin  out  so  that  the  tree  will  not  become  too  dense.  If 
this  is  followed,  the  tendency  will  be  for  young  trees  to 
come  to  bearing  earlier  than  they  otherwise  would. 


FIG.    178 

WELL-FORMED   APPLE   TREE   HEAD 
Note    how    well    the    frame    limbs    are    dis- 
tributed   and    how    strong    the    crotches    are. 
Compare  with  Fig.  73. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


215 


The  amount  of  pruning  that  trees,  which  have  just 
come  into  bearing  will  stand,  will,  of  course,  vary  greatly 
with  their  vigor.  The  soil,  the  climate,  and  the  variety 
should  all  be  taken  into  consideration.  There  is  a  great 
difference  in  the  bearing  habits  of  trees.  The  amount  of 
pruning  which  regular  bearers,  like  Jonathan,  Wagener, 
Winesap,  Grimes,  etc., 
will  stand  will  vary 
considerably  as  com- 
pared with  the  pruning 
that  Yellow  Newtown, 
Northern  Spy,  Bald- 
win, Tompkins  King  or 
varieties  of  their  habit 
of  growth  will  stand. 
As  a  general  rule,  the 
growers  of  Yellow 
Newtown  on  the  heav- 
ier soils  of  Oregon  are 
making  a  mistake  with 
their  young  trees.  In 
almost  all  cases  they 
are  over-pruning,  cut- 
ting their  trees  so  hard 
that  whatever  tendency 
the  trees  may  have  to 
bear  is  directed  into 
other  channels. 

The  directions  given 
so  far  apply  chiefly  to 
apple  pruning.  Never- 
theless, the  recommendations  apply  equally  well  to  all 
deciduous  fruits  and  nuts,  such  as  prunes,  pears,  cherries 
and  walnuts.  A  few  special  recommendations,  however, 
may  be  given  for  fruits  other  than  apples. 

173.  Recommendations  for  pears. — Growers  generally 
feel  that  it  is  harder  to  fight  the  blight  with  the  leader 


FIG.    179— SPLENDID    DISTRACTION   OF 
FRAME    BRANCHES    ON    FOUR-VEAR 
APPLE    TREE 


FIG.    180— FAR   TOO   MANY    FRUIT  SPURS 

This  old  Bartlett  pear  tree  has  become  too  full  of  many-branched  fruit  spurs. 
Most  of  these  are  weak.  Hence  they  produce  flowers  and  fruit  very  irregularly 
— only  once  in  five  or  ten  years. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


217 


than  with  the  open  type  of  tree.  So  it  is  generally  recom- 
mended that  either  the  open  type  or  the  modified  leader 
be  chosen.  They  must  remember,  however,  that  many 
of  the  open  trees  are  very  easily  damaged  by  blight  and 
are  often  ruined  because  the  crotches  are  poorly  formed 
(Fig.  164).  An  effort  should  be  made  to  have  the  branches 
spaced  as  far  apart  as  possible,  so  if  a  branch  is  lost  from 
blight,  the  remainder  of 
the  tree  may  be  easily 
saved.  It  should  always 
be  borne  in  mind  that  fire 
blight  works  in  suc- 
culent growth,  and  that 
in  handling  pear  trees 
one  should  avoid  exces- 
sive wood  growth. 

Pears  begin  their 
growth  earlier  in  the 
spring  and  cease  it  ear- 
lier in  the  summer  than 
do  apples.  This  should 
be  specially  borne  in 
mind  with  young  trees, 
if  summer  pruning  is  to 
be  practiced.  Some  varie- 
ties of  pears,  especially 
Bartlett,  have  a  tendency 
to  form  fruit  buds  and 
to  bear  fruit  on  the  ends  of  the  terminals.  They  will  do 
this  often  while  the  trees  are  still  very  young,  but  should 
be  discouraged  from  bearing  in  this  way.  The  tendency 
to  bear  on  such  terminals  should  be  overcome  by  summer 
pruning.  The  crooked  growth  of  Winter  Nelis  and  Bosc 
is  very  troublesome  to  the  beginner  in  pear  growing. 
Growers  should  not,  however,  worry  too  much  about  the 
crooked  growth,  for  as  the  trees  become  older,  they  will 
take  care  of  themselves  very  largely  and  this  crooked 


FIG.    181 

PLAN  OF  TREE  AT  PLANTING  TIME 
Numbers    indicate  branches 


218 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


growth  will  cease  to  be  troublesome.     Prune  the  trees  in 
practically  the  same  way  as  those  that  grow  straight. 

Pears  may  carry  more  lateral  wood  than  apples.  They 
spread  relatively  farther  when  they  produce  a  heavy  crop, 
so  one  should  avoid  thinning  the  young  trees  excessively. 
Keep  all  spurs,  or  fruits  (196)  from  the  main  trunks  and 
low  down  on  the  frame  branches,  as  these  are  a  source 
of  infection  from  the  blight.  It  is  also  wise,  in  pruning 
in  any  district  where  fire  blight  is  troublesome,  to  see 
that  the  pruning  tools  are  carefully  sterilized  (Fig.  183) 
before  the  cuts  are  made. 

174.  Recommendations  for  cherries. — Formerly  the 
cherry  was  headed  at  about  35  inches.  Many  growers 
head  at  20  to  25.  They  are  building  very  nice  trees. 
There  seems  to  be  a  prejudice  against  pruning  a  cherry 
tree.  The  first  six  years  it  may  be  pruned  about  the  same 
as  has  been  directed  for  apples.  Summer  pruning  is 
recommended,  as  splendid  results  may  thus  be  obtained. 
The  cherry  has  a  tendency  to  shoot  up 
in  the  air  very  rapidly,  making  an 
enormous  growth  the  first  two  years. 
The  result  is  that  the  average  grower 
has  not  the  nerve  in  the  winter  to  cut 
this  back  severely,  so  he  leaves  his  trees 
too  leggy  (Fig.  184).  One  way  to  over- 
come this  leggy,  high  type  of  growth 
is  to  cut  back  the  terminals  in  the  sum- 
mer. A  very  good  type  of  tree  to  get 
would  be  the  Mazzard  body,  making  the 
trunk  and  main  frame  branches  of  the 
Mazzard,  later  budding  these  over. 
This  will  give  strong  crotches  and  there 
will  be  little  gumming  and  loss  from 
trees  of  this  type.  Should  cherry  trees 
need  heavy  cutting,  do  not  hesitate  to 
take  large  branches.  However,  take 
care  to  protect  the  wounds  carefully 


FIG.    182 
PRUNED  PEAR 


Typical  five-year 
Winter  Nelis  pear  tree. 
Note  that  the  center  is 
being  suppressed.  This 
tree  gives  indication  of 
bearing  a  crop.  If  it 
should  bear,  it  will 
stand  heavier  cutting 
back  next 
Compare  with 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


219 


as  cherry  wood  is  softer  than  that  of  most  pomaceous 
fruits. 

175.  Recommendations  for  prunes  and  plums. — The 
recommendations  for  apple  trees  apply  very  closely.  The 
trees  are  generally  headed  higher  than  any  of  our  other 
fruits,  30  to  35  inches.  Some  growers,  however,  are  head- 
ing at  20  to  25.  The  tree  never  becomes  extremely  high- 
headed,  and 
since  most  of 
the  fruit,  which 
is  to  be  evap- 
orated, is  al- 
lowed to  drop 
on  the  ground 
before  harvest- 
ing, the  height 
of  the  head 
from  the  har- 
vesting point  of 
view  does  not 
need  any  con- 
sideration. 
However, 
growers  will 
probably  get 
better  results 
by  constantly 
suppressing  ter- 
minal growth 
a  n  d  thinning 
out  the  centers 
where  these  be- 
come too  dense,  so  as  to  allow  the  development  of 
strong  wood.  Do  not  overdo  this,  however,  by  removing 
all  small  laterals,  spurs  and  secondary  branches.  Also, 
do  not  remove  too  much  wood  from  the  outside  of  the 
tree,  and  yet  keep  the  tree  fairly  open.  Many  growers 


FIG.  183— FIRE-BLIGHT  HANDLING  KIT 
Corrosive  sublimate  in  bottle.  One  tablet  to  a  pint  of 
water  makes  a  1  to  1000  part  solution.  The  can  con- 
taining the  sponge  is  fastened  to  the  belt.  The  largest 
bottle  is  similarly  fastened.  It  is  uncorked  and  tilted 
to  wet  the  sponge  in  the  can  when  necessary.  The  pole 
pruner  has  a  sponge  to  swab  cuts  as  made.  A  wooden 
bucket  with  a  large  sponge  to  clean  out  cankers  completes 
the  outfit. 


220 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


of  young  trees  practice  cutting  off  considerable  wood  on 
the  outside  of  the  tree  and  leave  the  centers  a  little  dense. 
The  reverse  is  the  better  policy.  Try  to  keep  the  trees 
low  headed,  broad  and  low  spreading,  so  as  to  build  a 
large  framework  for  fruiting  wood  in  succeeding  years. 
176.  Recommendations  for  English  walnuts. — Trees 
should  be  headed  at  about  35  inches,  and  at  the  time  they 
are  headed  a  heavy  stake  7  or  8  feet  long  should  be  driven 
in  the  ground  close  to  the  body  of  the  tree.  The  first 
summer  choose  four  or  five  laterals  that  will  give  a  good 
framework  and  tie  these  to  the  stake.  If  this  is  not  done 
they  will  tend  to  droop  to  the  ground  too  much,  but  by 
careful  tying  one  can  keep  them  well  in  shape.  The 
following  spring  cut  back  the  trees  exactly  as  though 
they  were  apples.  In  many  walnut  trees  one  branch  may 
grow  up  6  or  8  feet — 3  or  4  feet  higher  than  any  of  the 
other  branches.  Cut  this  back  hard  so  as  to  bring  on 
the  other  branches.  Generally  the 
pruning  should  be  done  just  before  the 
starting  of  the  sap  flow.  Formerly  the 
trees  were  allowed  to  grow  three  or 
four  years,  all  laterals  were  taken  off 
and  the  trees  grown  to  poles.  We  find 
that  when  they  are  handled  as  though 
they  were  apples,  we  get  more  spread- 
ing trees  with  larger  fruiting  areas — 
trees  which  will  be  much  easier  to 
handle  from  the  orchard  management 
point  of  view. 

177.  Recommendations  for  peaches. 
The  peach  has  a  different  fruiting  habit 
from  any  other  trees  we  have  men- 
tioned (56).  However,  the  aim  in 
pruning  such  trees  the  first  few  years 
is  much  the  same  as  that  for  other  types 
of  fruit ;  namely,  the  building  up  of  a 
framework  for  future  years  of 


FIG.    184 

POOR  TYPE  CHERRY 
All  the  main 
branches  issue  at  one 
point.  Note  how  "leggy" 
the  tree  is.  This  is 
due  to  insufficient  head- 
ing back  the  first  two 
years.  Heading  this 
tree  back  twice  a  year 
might  have  been  help- 
ful. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


221 


FIG.     185  — THREE-YEAR    LAM- 
BERT  CHERRY   BEFORE   EARLY 
JULY    PRUNING 


FIG.    186  — THREE -YEAR- OLD 

LAMBERT  CHERRY  TREE  AFTER 

PRUNING    IN    EARLY    JULY 


fruiting.  The  peach,  when  secured  from  the  nursery,  is 
generally  too  large  and  has  a  large  number  of  branches. 
An  ideal  tree  is  a  straight  whip,  but  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  buy  such  trees.  Under  our  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
the  trees  tend  to  grow  very  vigorously  in  the  nursery.  A 
general  heading  to  about  18  to  20  inches  is  recommended. 

If  whips  can  be  secured,  they  should  be  pruned  as  is 
customary  with  the  other  trees.  If  there  are  a  few  weak 
laterals,  they  should  be  removed,  but  if  the  trees  have 
strong  laterals,  instead  of  removing  all  lateral  growth, 
which  is  practiced  by  some  growers,  half  a  dozen  well- 
spaced  branches  should  be  chosen  and  cut  back  to  one 
or  two  buds.  This  will  give  a  large  leaf  surface  the  first 
year,  will  remove  the  danger  of  having  a  tree  stand  with 
only  one  or  two  branches,  and  also  will  remove  the  dan- 
ger of  the  tree's  dying.  Under  our  climatic  conditions  a 
great  many  peach  trees,  when  they  are  pruned  back  to 
whips,  after  they  have  once  formed  strong  laterals,  never 
start  to  grow.  Some  trees  will  force  out  new  buds  and 
shoots,  but  others  will  not.  If,  after  the  buds  start  on  the 


222 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


short  laterals,  there  are  found  to  be  too  many,  it  will  be 
a  simple  matter  to  thin  out  undesirable  growth. 

It  is  customary  to  try  to  head  peaches  as  low  as  pos- 
sible; to  have  the  first  branch  to  come  out  very  close  to 
the  ground  and  to  get  the  crotches  as  well  spaced  as  is 
consistent  with  the  amount  of  area  one  can  work  with. 


FIG.   187— OLD  PRUNE  TREE  AFTER  REMOVAI    OF  DEAD  WOOD  AND  SEVERE 
THINNING  OF  THE  LIVING  SPURS 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


223 


At  the  end  of  the  first  year  choose  four  or  five  of  the 
best  spaced  branches  and  cut  them  back  on  an  average 
of  8  to  12  inches.  Not  much  summer  pruning  is  practiced 
for  peaches.  By  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  tree 
should  be  cut  back  again  so  it  will  be  3^  to  4J^  feet  high. 
Constantly  train  the  tree  to 
spread  by  cutting  to  outside 
buds,  constantly  forcing  the 
tree  to  make  a  broad,  spread- 
ing top,  rather  than  to  allow  it 
to  shoot  up  in  the  air.  It  takes 
more  nerve  than  the  average 
grower  has  to  cut  the  tree  as 
hard  as  indicated,  but  it  is  nec- 
essary if  one  is  to  keep  it  near 
the  ground  and  have  profitable 
fruiting. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  cut 
off  about  two-thirds  of  the  last 
year's  wood  from  the  inside  of 
the  tree.  Practice  this  con- 
stantly with  the  peach.  The 
aim  should  be  to  keep  the 
center  open  so  as  to  give  light 
and  develop  strong  wood.  Cut 
out  all  weak  wood  and  limit  the 
amount  of  annual  wood  so  what 
is  left  may  grow  strong.  It 
will  be  only  on  the  strong  wood  that  large  peaches  will 
grow.  Growers,  however,  may  go  to  extremes  in  grow- 
ing vigorous  wood.  If  the  wood  becomes  too  vigorous 
the  first  two  crops  will  be  borne  on  the  ends  of  the  shoots 
and  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  prune  the  trees  and 
still  have  any  fruit.  Medium-sized  wood  is  more  de- 
sirable. If  the  wood  is  getting  too  vigorous  be  sparing 
in  the  pruning  and  it  will  tend  to  check  the  trees.  A  little 
summer  pruning  may  be  used  to  advantage  where  the 


• 


FIG.   188 

FIVE-BRANCHED  TREE  AT  END 
OF    FIRST    SEASON 


224 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE    OF   PRUNING 


wood  tends  to  become  excessive.    Not  much  fruit  should 

be  looked  for  until  about  the  fourth  year. 

178.  Best   height    for    peach   tree   head.* — There   is    considerable 

variation  in  the  recommendations  and  suggestions  of  various  au- 
thorities as  to  the  proper 
method  or  degree  of  prun- 
ing peach  trees  at  the  time 
of  planting.  A  common 
recommendation  is  to  cut 
the  trees  back  to  a  height  of 
from  18  to  24  inches  regard- 
less of  grade.  Some  recom- 
mend cutting  back  the 
trunks  to  6  inches  and 
others  even  30  inches.  These 
suggestions  are  apparently 
based  on  some  ideal  with 
respect  to  the  height  at 
which  the  individual  prefers 
to  have  the  branches  form. 
In  order  to  secure  a  rela- 
tively low-headed  tree,  one 
must  cut  back  the  trunk  of 
the  nursery  tree  rather 
severely  at  planting  time  to 
make  it  branch  low.  This 
has  led  some  to  believe  that 
the  more  severely  the  tree 
is  cut  back  the  lower  the 
head  will  be ;  and  that  hence 
spraying  and  picking  the 
fruit  may  be  performed 
more  easily.  But  the  mere 
cutting  back  of  the  trunk 
to  a  low  point  does  not  nec- 
essarily mean  that  the  fruit 
may  be  picked  more  easily 
or  the  tree  sprayed  more 
economically  than  from  one 
whose  head  is  formed  sev- 
eral inches  higher  (Ki.u. 
72).  For  example,  some 
fruit  growers  cut  the  trees 
back  to  a  -six-inch  stub  at 
the  time  of  planting  and 
then  proceed  to  remove  all 
side  branches  that  form  on 


FIG.  189 

NEGLECT  FOLLOWING  DEHORNING 
Four  years  ago  this  old  Italian  Prune  tree 
was  "dehorned"  for  renovation.  Little  or  no 
pruning  has  been  done  since.  Last  year  the 
tree  bore  a  small  crop  of  prunes  on  spurs 
that  had  developed  on  the  water  sprouts  stimu- 
lated by  the  dehorning.  There  is  promise  of 
a  medium  crop  this  year;  but  the  newly 
formed  spurs  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tree  are 
already  declining  because  of  too  much  shade. 
To  keep  them  from  getting  long  and  willowy, 
and  finally  dying,  considerable  thinning  out  is 
necessary.  Heading  back  which  would  stimu- 
late the  formation  of  more  water  sprouts 
would  increase  the  trouble.  Comoare  with 
Figs.  30,  31,  150,  159,  161,  165,  166  and  the 
explanations  accompanying  them. 


*  Paragraphs   178   to    186  condensed   from  M.  A.    Blake's   Bulletin    (293)    of   the 
New  Jersey  Experiment  Station. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


225 


FIG.  190— PLAN  OF  TREE  TOP  AFTER  ONE 

SEASON'S  GROWTH   IN   ORCHARD 
Numbers     indicate    primary    and    secondary 
branches   and   the   little    cross   lines   the    posi- 
tions to  make  pruning  cuts. 


the  selected  s  c  a  ff  o  1  d 
branches  to  a  height  of  sev- 
eral feet! 

179.  Outline  of  the  ex- 
periments. —  The  object  of 
this  article  is  to  report  the 
results  of  pruning  studies 
with  peach  trees  at  various 
heights  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, studies  which  attempt 
to  note  the  effect  of  such 
pruning  upon  the  total 
growth  of  the  trees  and  up- 
on the  form,  vigor  and  de- 
velopment of  the  branches. 
In  any  study  of  this  sort 
two  general  types  of  results 
are  to  be  looked  for:  those 
that  concern  the  welfare  of 
the  plant  from  a  botanical 
and  plant  growth  stand- 
point, and  those  which  are 
merely  commercial.  Some 
differences  in  results  may  be 
expected,  depending  upon 

whether  the  trees  are  freshly  dug  from  the  nursery  at  time  of  plant- 
ing, or  whether  they  have  become  severely  dried  out  for  some  rea- 
son before  planting.  The  variety  may  also  be 

a  factor,  as  would  certainly  the  grade  or  size 

of  the  trees. 

Although  "June  buds"  are  used  to  some  ex- 
tent in  New  Jersey  for  planting,  most  growers 

purchase     one-year-old     trees,     hence     these 

studies  are  confined  to  trees  of  that  age.    Such 

trees    are    commonly    graded    by    height    and 

caliper.     Trees  of  the  same  height  may  vary 

considerably  in  stockiness  or  caliper  as  grown 

in  different  nurseries,  so  the  caliper  method  is 

the  better  basis  for  a  study  of  differences  in 

vigor.     As  representing  common  sizes  offered 

for  sale  the  following  sizes  of  trees  were  used 

in  the  experiment :   caliper  ^,  £4,  fy&,   l/2  and 

•>^-inch.    The  pruning  treatments  studied  were 

as  follows :    1,  not  pruned ;  2,  back  to  36-inch 

trunks;  to  30-inch;  to  24-inch;  to  18-inch;  to 

12-inch ;  to  6-inch. 
One  of  the  principal  objects  of  cutting  back 

the  tops  of  trees  at  the  time  of  planting  is  to 

reduce   the   twig   surface   to   balance   the   loss 


FIG.    191 

ENGLISH  WALNUT 
This  three-year  tree 
is  properly  staked.  In 
pruning,  the  two  lowest 
laterals  should  be  cut 
and  last  year's  growth 
cut  back.  The  tree  was 
headed  at  30  inches. 
It  would  be  better  if 
5  or  6  inches  higher. 


226 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


due  to  digging,  and  therefore  to  decrease  the  danger  of  loss  of  trees 
and  to  secure  a  better  growth. 

The  experiment  was  started  in  the  spring  with  two  lots  of  El- 
berta  trees.  One  lot  consisted  of  trees  which  had  been  dug  the 
previous  fall  and  kept  in  a  large  nursery  storehouse.  Such  trees 
are  nearly  always  drier  than  freshly  dug  trees.  It  was  planned  to 
compare  these  with  a  lot  of  freshly  dug  trees,  but  the  latter  lot  be- 
came badly  dried  out  because  of  improper  handling  by  the  nursery- 
man before  they  were  delivered,  the  bark  upon  many  of  the  trees 
being  badly  shriveled  at  the  time  of  delivery.  This,  however,  fur- 
nished an  equally  good  comparison,  although  from  another  stand- 
point. 

Thirty-five  trees  of  each  grade  were  selected  making  five  trees  to 
each  pruning  treatment.  The  roots  were  left  in  the  form  in  which 


*, 


FIG.  192— SPLENDID  TYPE  OF  LOW-HEADED,  SPREADING  ENGLISH  WALNUT 

they  came  from  the  nursery  except  that  any  broken  tips  were  cut 
off  cleanly.  They  were  all  planted  the  same  day  in  good  soil  and 
were  given  good  culture  throughout  the  season. 

At  the  close  of  the  growing  season  and  after  the  foliage  had 
fallen,  notes  were  taken  as  to  the  number  of  living  trees,  and 
measurements  were  made  of  the  linear  twig  growth  upon  each 
tree.  There  were  175  of  the  stored  trees  at  the  time  of  planting, 
:*5  each  of  five  grades.  All  lived  eoccept  one  in  the  -V^-inch  grade 
which  had  been  pruned  to  30  inches.  One  tree  of  the  ~x-inch  grade 
was  slightly  injured  in  cultivation  and  was  not  averaged  with  the 
others  of  the  12-inch  treatment.  This  experiment  shows  practically 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


227 


FIG.    193— PORTABLE    BRUSH    INCINERATOR 
Built  of  sheet  iron   on   runners.     Holes   in  the   bottom 
admit  air  and  allow  ashes   to   fall  out. 


no  loss  of  trees  through  lack  of  cutting  back  of  the  top  at  the  time 
of  planting,  as  all  the  unpruned  trees  were  alive  at  the  end  of  the 
growing  season. 

180.  Effect  of  pruning  upon  total  twig  growth. — On  the  basis  of 
a  comparison  of  grades   regardless  of  any  pruning  treatment    the 
•^j-inch  trees  made 

the  best  average 
total  growth, 
closely  followed  by 
the  i/^-inch  trees. 
The  smallest  aver- 
age total  growth 
was  made  by  the 
2^-inch  trees.  A 
comparison  of  the 
various  pruning 
treatments  regard- 
less of  grade 
shows  that  the  best 
average  total 
growth  was  made 
by  the  trees  pruned 
to  36  inches  and 
the  next  best  by 
those  cut  back  to 

12  inches.  The  lowest  average  growth  was  made  by  the  trees  cut 
to  18  inches.  The  unpruned  trees  made  a  very  creditable  and  uni- 
form growth  in  comparison  with  the  other  treatments  based  on  total 
growth  regardless  of  form. 

181.  Effect  of  pruning  growth  of  dried-out  trees. — When  the  dried- 
out  trees  were  received  the  bark  was  much  shriveled  and  the  roots 
in  a  dried  condition,  but  they  were  soaked  in  water  for  several  hours, 
heeled  into  moist  soil  for  a  few  days  and  then  pruned  and  planted. 
The  same  number  of  trees  were  used  as  in  the  experiment  previously 
noted,  except  that  it  was  not  possible  to  secure  trees  of  a  7/6-inch 
grade. 

A  record  of  the  number  of  living  trees  at  the  close  of  the  sea- 
son's growth  clearly  indicates,  as  would  be  expected,  that  the  small 
trees  suffered  the  most  from  the  drying  out  in  transit.  The  roots 
of  ^-inch  trees  are  all  small  and  easily  dried  out.  The  bark  of 
twigs  and  trunk  of  the  smaller  trees  probably  also  permits  more 
rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  than  does  that  of  the  larger  trees. 

One  would  expect  to  find  the  greatest  loss  among  the  unpruned 
trees  and  the  least  among  the  6-inch  trees.  This  is  practically  true, 
but  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  12-inch  treatment  and  the  36-inch 
treatment  have  as  high  a  percentage  of  living  trees  as  the  6-inch, 
and  that  the  18  and  24-inch  treatments  suffered  nearly  as  much  loss 
as  the  unpruned  trees.  This  is  significant  in  connection  with  the 
comparisons  on  the  basis  of  total  growth  in  the  various  treatments. 


228 


PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


The  loss  of  so  many  trees  in  the  ^-inch  grade  seriously  affects  the 
number  to  be  averaged  as  to  total  growth.  The  dried-out  trees  made 
hardly  more  than  a  third  of  the  growth  that  the  stored  trees  did. 

The  best  average  total  growth  among  the  dried-out  trees  was 
made  by  the  ^-inch  grade.  A  comparison  on  the  basis  of  pruning 
treatment  regardless  of  grade  shows  the  following:  The  unpruned 
trees  made  the  poorest  average  growth;  the  36-inch  treatment  re- 
sulted in  the  next  poorest  growth;  the  30-inch  treatment  resulted 
in  the  best  growth ;  the  24-inch  treatment  resulted  in  the  next  best 
growth.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  unpruned  trees  of  this  lot 
would  make  the  poorest  growth,  and  one  might  expect  that  the  more 
severe  the  pruning  the  better  the  growth.  This  is  true  to  a  certain 
degree,  but  it  does  not  follow  in  regular  proportion  to  the  severity 
of  the  pruning.  Another  factor  appears  to  enter  into  the  case. 

182.  Studies  with  freshly  dug  nursery  trees.— The  following  spring 
trees  of  the  Belle  of  Georgia  variety  were  secured  freshly  dug  from 
a  local  nursery  and  im- 
mediately planted.  The  same 
grades  and  pruning  treat- 
ments were  used  as  in  the 
former  tests.  Two  trees  out 
of  140  in  the  36-inch  treat- 
ment died.  One  was  of  y%- 
inch  caliper  arid  the  other 
}/2-inch  caliper.  The  results 
of  this  test  in  terms  of  twig 
growth  show  that  the  larger 
the  grade  the  poorer  the 
growth  of  unpruned,  freshly 
dug  trees.  The  smaller  the 
grade  the  better  is  tin- 
growth  of  6-inch  pruned 
trees.  Or  expressed  in 
other  words,  the  larger  the 
trees  the  more  they  are  de- 
pressed in  growth  by  a  6- 
inch  stub  pruning  treatment. 
183.  Distribution  and  size 
of  branches. — A  free,  vigor- 
ous growth  is  desired  the 

FIG.  194  first    season    the    trees    are 

WELL  PRUNED  AND  OPEN  HEADED         set,    but    mere    volume    of 

Such    a    tree    facilitates    spraying,    thinning       growth  is  not  the  only  con- 
and   harvesting    and    produces    large   crops   of       sideration    in    a    commercial 

pVrTwith^g^u.68  8  negIeCtCd  treC'    C°m"      fruit    Panting.      The    form 

and  character  of  growth  as 

related  to  successful  support  of  a  heavy  crop  of  fruit  later  and  to 
the  economical  care  and  management  of  the  trees  are  of  much  con- 
sequence. In  order  to  determine  and  show  the  effect  of  pruning 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


229 


upon  branch  formation  upon  the  trunk,  the  number  of  branches  tc 
each  6  inches  of  trunk  was  noted  in  all  grades  and  treatments  of  the 
experiment  with  Belle  of  Georgia  trees.  The  numbers  of  branches 
at  various  heights  upon  the  unpruned  trees  are  of  direct  interest 
because  they  should  indicate  fairly  accurately  the  distribution  of  buds 
and  branches  at  the  time  the  trees  were  set.  As  dead  branches  were 
not  recorded,  however,  the  actual  distribution  of  branches  at  time  of 
planting  may  not  be  accurately  indicated  by  these  figures. 


PEACff  TRUNK,    1 
Close    view   of   lower   part 
of     one-year     trunk.       Note 
buds   and   branches. 


FIG.    195— GOOD   YEARLING    PEACH 
This    1-inch    caliper   tree    is    exceptional    a9 
to   size   and   branch    development.      The   num- 
bers   indicate   the    height    in    inches    from    the 
bud  at  A. 

The  observations  upon  tbe  unpruned  trees  as  a  group  show  that 
the  number  of  branches  increases  for  each  succeeding  6  inches  of 
trunk  from  the  ground  to  a  height  of  24  inches.  From  this  height 
to  36-inch  the  number  remains  quite  uniform  and  then  decreases 
for  each  succeeding  6  inches  of  height.  The  unpruned  trees  of  the 
•>6  grade  vary,  to  a  slight  degree  from  this  rule.  The  decrease  in 


230 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE  OF   PRUNING 


the  number  of  branches  to  each  6  inches  of  height  of  trunk  begins 

at  the  24-inch  height  instead  of  at  the  36-inch  height  in  the  case  of 

the  larger  trees. 

In  a  further  study,  the  results  show  that  the  largest  number  of 

branches  to  develop  upon  the  first  or  lowest  6  inches  of  trunk-occur 
in  the  6-inch  treatment.  The  largest  num- 
ber of  branches  upon  the  second  6  inches 
of  trunk,  or  from  6  to  12  inches  above  the 
point  of  budding,  occurs  in  the  12-inch 
treatment.  The  largest  number  of 
branches  upon  the  third  6  inches  of  trunk- 
is  also  found  to  occur  in  the  8-inch  treat- 
ment. Thus  far,  then,  branches  have  de- 
veloped more  freely  upon  the  6  inches  of 
trunk  immediately  below  the  point  where 
the  tree  was  cut  back.  The  trees  in  these 
treatments,  then,  follow  the  plant  law  that 
growth  is  strongest  at  the  tips  of  the 
branches  (91). 

Beginning  with  the  24-inch  treatment, 
however,  the  largest  number  of  branches 
is  not  found  upon  the  6  inches  of  trunk 
immediately  below  the  point  where  the 
tree  was  cut  back.  Before  this  exception 
is  discussed  further,  it  may  'be  well  to 
note  what  the  results  were  in  the  case 
of  the  other  lots  of  trees.  .  At  that  time 
the  location  of  the  branches  upon  the  un- 
prunecl  trees  was  not  considered  to  be  of 
any  practical  importance. 

One  lot  of  trees  behaved  somewhat 
differently  from  that  just  referred  to. 
There  appears  to  be  a  great  tendency  for 
trees  at  all  dried  out  to  develop  the 
greater  number  of  branches  on  the  first 
6  inches  of  trunk  near  the  ground  regard- 
less of  the  pruning  treatment.  This  is  to 
be  expected  perhaps  since  that  portion  of 
the  tree  would  dry  out  more  slowly  than 
any  other.  The  trees  pruned  to  12  and  is 
inch  trunks  did  not  develop  the  greatest 
number  of  branches  along  the  6  inches  of 
trunk  immediately  below  the  point  of 
cutting  back,  as  was  the  case  with  the  freshly  dug  trees. 

Several  other  facts  may  also  be  noted.  The  number  of  branches 
developing  on  the  first  6  inches  of  trunk  tends  to  increase  with  the 
severity  of  the  pruning.  •  The  18-inch  treatment  falls  below  its  proper 
place  in  the  scale,  but  the  figures  undoubtedly  correctly  indicate  the 


FIG.  197 

PEACH  TRUNK,  2 
This  is  a  close  view  of  the 
upper  section  of  a  trunk  one 
year  old.  Letters  show  6- 
inch  lengths.  Note  bud  and 
branch  formation. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES 


231 


condition  of  this  lot  of 
trees. 

The  number  of  branches 
developing  on  the  second 
6  inches  of  trunk  is  also 
limited  in  the  18-inch  treat- 
ment. The  unpruned  trees 
and  the  36-inch  treatment 
of  the  freshly  dug  Belle  of 
Georgia  trees  developed  the 
largest  number  of  branches 
on  the  18  to  24-inch  section 
of  the  trunk.  The  36-inch 
treatment  of  the  stored 
Elberta  trees,  however,  de- 
veloped but  few  branches 
on  the  18  to  24-inch  sec- 
tion of  trunk,  and  de- 
veloped by  far  the  largest 
number  on  the  first  6 
inches. 

It  is  evident  that  the 
branch  formation  upon  the 
pruned  trees  is  largely  con- 
trolled by  the  distribution 
of  the  buds  upon  the  trunks 
of  the  nursery  trees.  Upon 
the  larger  grades  of  stored 
Elberta  trees  there  were 

very  few 

vigorous  buds  on  the  trunks  from  6  to  18 
inches  above  the  point  of  budding,  with  the 
result  that  very  few  branches  could  develop. 
Stored  trees  are  commonly  somewhat  dried 
out  and  any  poorly  developed  or  adventitious 
buds  are  not  likely  to  start  as  freely  as  in  the 
case  of  freshly  dug  trees.  The  light  grade  of 
stored  trees,  the  ^g-inch,  had  more  buds  upon 
the  6  to  18-inch  sections  of  trunk. 

It  is  plain  from  the  above  facts  why  the 
stored  trees  failed  to  give  the  same  results  as 
the  freshly  dug  trees  in  the  matter  of  free 
development  of  branches  upon  the  6  inches  of 
trunk  immediately  below  the  point  of  cutting 
back  in  the  12  and  18-inch  treatments.  It 
should  be  noted  further,  however,  that  the 
section  of  trunk  12  to  18  inches  above  the 
point  of  budding  is  a  weak  spot  from  the 


FIG.   198 

ONE-YEAR    PEACH    FROM   NURSERY 
Numbers  are  inches  from  the  bud  union  at  A 


FIG.        199  — GOOD 
TREE    PROTECTOR 


232 


»RINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


standpoint  of  branch  growth,  even  in  the  case  of  the  freshly  dug 
trees,  as  is  indicated  by  the  total  growth  of  all  trees  pruned  to  a 
height  of  18  inches.  Such  evidence  indicates  that  some  of  our 
arbitrary  and  "rule  of  thumb"  methods  of  pruning  peach  trees  at 
time  of  planting  may  need  revising. 

A  question  which  also  arises  is  whether  the  trees  of  the  12  and 
the  18-inch  treatments  which  died  back  to  6  inches  because  branches 

failed  to  start  near  the  tips 
made  as  much  growth  as 
trees  originally  pruned  to  6 
inches.  The  records  of  total 
linear  twig  growth  do  not  in- 
dicate that  the  dying  trunk 
stubs  had  a  depressing  effect 
upon  growth.  In  fact,  the 
growth  upon  these  trees  is 
fully  equal  to  that  of  the  6- 
inch  stubs.  These  dying 
stubs,  however,  cause  the 
branches  to  spread  out  at  the 
base,  and  it  would  be  well  to 
remove  such  stubs  as  soon  as 
it  is  certain  that  they  will  not 
develop  any  branches. 

184.  Length  of  the  branches. 
The  total  twig  growth  of  the 
tree  is  important  as  indicat- 
ing general  vigor.  The  points 
at  which  the  trees  develop 
branches  concern  the  forma- 
tion of  the  head  of  the  tree. 
The  number  and  length  of 
the  branches  may  also  hr 
factors  in  the  development  of 
the  form  of  the  tree. 

The   largest    total    number 
of  branches  occurred  in  the 
lengths  from  7  to   12  inches. 
The     largest     average     total 
number    of    branches    of    all 
FIG.      200  — ONE-YEAR      PEACH      FROM    lengths    occurred   in   the    36- 
NURSERY— H-INCH  CALlPER  inch  treatment,  and  the  next 

Figures  indicate  inches  above  the  bud  at  A    largest  average  number  in  the 

12-inch    treatment.      This    is 

the  same  ranking  as  occurred  on  the  basis  of  total  growth.     The 
18-inch  treatment  resulted  in  the  smallest  average  total  number  of 
branches  and  it  also  produced  the  lowest  average  total  growth, 
number  of  branches  regardless  of  their  length,  therefore,  appears 
to  be  correlated  with  amount  of  growth.     We  may  conclude,  then, 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES  233 

that  the  more  severe  the  pruning  the  greater  the  tendency  toward 
the  production  of  long  branches. 

The  total  number  of  branches  from  24  to  50  inches  in  length  serves 
as  a  good  basis  for  comparing  treatments.  The  results  were  as 
follows:  Not  pruned,  27  branches;  36-inch,  71;  30-inch,  69;  24- 
inch,  68 ;  18-inch,  65  ;  12-inch,  69 ;  6-inch,  54.  This  shows  an  average 
of  at  least  three  branches  to  the  tree  from  24  to  50  inches  in  length 
for  all  treatments  except  the  "not  pruned"  'and  the  "6-inch"  trees. 
This  indicates  that  about  the  same  number  of  vigorous  branches 
developed  under  all  but  the  most  extreme  treatments,  yet  the  actual 
position  of  the  branches  may  vary  greatly.  If  each  grade  is  ex- 
amined separately,  differences  are  noted. 

Increased  size  and  vigor  of  the  trees  and  their  root  systems  may 
be  expected  to  offset  a  slight  advantage  in  the  number  of  buds 
beyond  certain  limits.  The  proportion  of  top  to  root  also  bears  on 
the  case.  Yet,  with  due  consideration  to  the  importance  of  these 
factors,  there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  bud  and  branch 
development  at  different  points  upon  the  trunks  of  one-year-old 
peach  trees  as  received  from  the  nursery  has  an  important  bearing 
upon  the  growth  of  these  trees  as  they  are  pruned  and  planted. 

If  a  tree  is  cut  back  above  a  point  where  well-developed  buds  are 
numerous,  good  branch  development  may  be  expected.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  a  tree  is  cut  back  just  above  a  point  where  there  are 
but  few  buds,  the  tree  may  fail  to  start  well,  or  perhaps  not  start 
at  all,  leaving  a  dead  stub.  Some  variation  is  to  be  looked  for 
between  different  lots  of  nursery  trees  even  of  the  same  variety, 
and  especially  where  insects  or  diseases  have  affected  the  develop- 
ment of  the  trees ;  yet  the  data  demonstrate  that  many  facts  are  re- 
markably constant. 

185.  Commercial  results.— A  treatment  of  a  plant  that  results  in 
the  most  vigorous  growth  is  not  necessarily  the  most  profitable  or 
desirable  treatment  from  a  commercial  standpoint.  It  is  possible 
for  a  tree  to  make  a  large  amount  of  growth,  but  it  may  be  in  such 
a  form  as  to  be  poorly  adapted  to  the  production  and  support  of  a 
crop  of  fruit.  In  general,  however,  any  treatment  which  depresses 
growth  interferes  with  the  tree's  commercial  possibilities. 

The  tendency  for  trees  of  ^-inch  grade,  cut  back  to  6  inches 
when  set,  is  to  develop  one  or  two  large  leading  branches  from  near 
the  point  of  budding  and  sometimes  below.  Where  several  branches 
develop  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  the  control  of  borers  is 
made  difficult.  Trees  of  the  same  grade  cut  to  12  inches  are  quite 
similar  to  the  6-inch  trees.  Trees  of  the  3^-inch  grade  cut  to  30 
inches  are  well-formed  trees  which  permit  of  a  short  trunk  and  a 
good  distribution  of  the  main  branches. 

The  18  and  24-inch  treatments  of  ^-inch  stored  Elberta  trees 
failed  to  produce  branches  much  above  6  inches  from  the  ground 
and  the  "stub"  finally  died.  Trees  of  large  caliper  commonly  have 
few  or  no  well-formed  buds  upon  this  portion  of  the  trunk  and  fail 


234  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OK    PRUNING 

to  start  well,  especially  if  they  have  become  somewhat  dried  out  be- 
fore being  set.  The  J/2-inch  grade  cut  to  24  inches  easily  forms 
trees  with  short  trunks  and  well-placed  branches.  The  growth  upon 
unpruned  trees  is  not  desirable  commercially  even  if  the  trees 
should  make  a  fair  to  good  growth. 

From  the  results  of  these  studies  it  is  evident  that  should  a  fruit 
grower  prefer  to  cut  his  trees  back  to  6-inch  stubs  at  planting  time, 
he  should  purchase  trees  of  a  f^-inch  caliper.  Small  trees  suffer 
most  if  they  are  allowed  to  become  dry  at  any  time  previous  to 
planting.  Trees  cut  to  a  height  of  36  inches  when  set  make  a  better 
average  top  growth  than  trees  cut  more  severely,  if  the  question  is 
considered  broadly  and  regardless  of  grade. 

186.  Summary. — One-year-old  peach  trees  of  a  *M*  or  ^-inch 
grade  made  the  largest  average  total  growth.  The  larger  the  trees 
the  poorer  the  growth  when  unpruned  at  planting  time.  The  smaller 
the  trees,  the  greater  the  damage  if  the  trees  are  allowed  to  become 
dry  before  planting. 

The  largest  average  total  growth  regardless  of  grade  was  made 
by  trees  cut  to  a  36-inch  trunk  when  set,  except  in  the  case  of  dried- 
out  trees.  Trees  cut  to  12-inch  trunks  when  set  made  the  next 
largest  average  total  growth.  The  smallest  average  total  growth 
occurred  when  trees  were  cut  to  18-inch  trunks  when  set.  Trees  of 
•)^-inch  grade  made  the  largest  amount  of  growth  when  cut  back 
to  6-inch  trunks  when  set.  Trees  as  large  as  24  inch  or  larger  were 
depressed  in  growth  when  cut  back  to  6-inch  trunks. 

Trees  in  general  failed  to  develop  branches  well  upon  the  12  to 
24-inch  section  of  the  trunk.  Very  few  well-developed  buds  occur 
upon  this  section  of  the  tree  under  average  conditions.  The  largest 
total  number  of  branches  occurs  in  the  lengths  from  7  to  12  inches. 
The  largest  average  total  number  of  branches  of  all  lengths  oc- 
curred irr  the  36-inch  treatment,  with  the  12-inch  treatment  second. 
The  number  of  branches  of  all  lengths  is,  therefore,  apparently 
correlated  with  the  amount  of  growth.  The  unpruned  trees  de- 
veloped the  smallest  number  of  branches  more  than  24  inches  long. 
The  36-inch  trees  developed  the  largest  number  of  branches  that 
were  more  than  24  inches  long.  The  6-inch  treatment  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  the  largest  number  of  branches,  40  to  50  inches 
long.  The  12-inch  treatment  gave  the  largest  number  of  brandies. 
37  to  40  inches  long.  The  18-inch  treatment  gave  the  largest  number 
of  branches,  25  to  30  inches  long.  The  24-inch  treatment  gave  the 
largest  number  of  branches,  25  to  30  inches  long. 

We  may  then  conclude  that  the  more  severe  the  pruning  the 
greater  the  tendency  to  produce  long  branches  (83).  It  should  be 
noted  further,  however,  that  so-called  main  branches  are  reduced 
in  number  when  the  trees  are  cut  to  6  inches.  One-year  peach  trees 
from  the  nursery  start  into  growth  best  when  planted  in  the  or- 
chard if  there  are  well-formed  buds  just  below  the  point  where  the 
tree  is  cut  back.  The  number  of  such  buds  varies  at  different  points 
along  the  trunk  of  a  nursery  tree.  Buds  are  found  to  be  most 


PRUNING  YOl'XG  TREES  235 

numerous  at  the  G  to  12-inch  space,  followed  in  order  by  the  12  to 
18  and  the  :24  to  30-inch  spaces. 

Peach  trees  at  the  time  of  planting  should  be  pruned  somewhat 
according  to  grade  and  the  character  of  the  stock,  and  not  accord- 
ing to  some  definite  height  regardless  of  all  other  factors. 

187.  Citrus  trees. — Few  fruits  demand  as  little  pruning 
as  do  the  citrus  trees^oranges,  lemons,  grapefruits,  etc. 
— after  once  having  been  "educated"  by  training  through 
their  youthful  days.  Much  of  the  pruning  is  done  when 
the  trees  are  set  and  during  the  first  season  or  two.  The 
lemon  (190),  however,  is  more  pruned  than  any  other 
member  of  the  citrus  group,  its  handling  by  many  grow- 
ers thus  approaching  that  of  the  peach.  High  heads  are 
rapidly  giving  place  in  popularity  to  low  ones,  so  low 
that  often  the  branches  rest  on  the  ground.  So  satis- 
factory have  low  heads  proved  that  many  high-headed 
trees  are  being  lowered  by  the  encouragement  and  de- 
velopment of  water  sprouts  on  the  lower  parts  of  the 
trunks  and  the  gradual  cutting  of  branches  high  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  tops.  In  due  time  the  suckers  properly 
handled  will  bear  fruit. 

In  Florida  "die-back"  of  the  tops  commonly  follows  a 
freeze  or  severe  pruning.  The  roots  are  usually  unhurt. 
Root  pruning  therefore  aids  in  re-establishing  a  balance 
between  top  and  root.  A  sharp  spade  thrust  deep  in  the 
soil  in  a  circle  at  nearly  the  limit  of  the  branch  spread  will 
usually  produce  good  results.  The  cause  of  the  malady 
should,  however,  be  discovered  and  the  proper  remedy 
applied. 

Frozen  trees  may  be  left  alone,  cut  back  somewhat  or 
actually  at  the  ground  surface.  The  first  is  objectionable 
because  the  dead  top  must  be  removed  some  time ;  why 
not  at  once?  If  left,  a  large  part  of  the  new  growth  must 
be  injured  in  taking  it  out.  In  cases  of  slight  injury  the 
pruning  may  be  postponed  until  the  dead  twigs  become 
dry  enough  to  break  out.  Cutting  is,  however,  better 
than  breaking.  In  cases  of  severe  injury  the  whole  of 
the  injured  part  should  go  at  once,  preferably  at  the 


236  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 

ground.  Sprouts  or  grafts  may  be  used  to  form  a  new 
top.  The  sprouts  may  be  budded  when  large  enough. 
When  the  trunk  seems  unhurt  it  may  be  left  to  develop 
a  new  top,  only  the  injured  parts  being  removed.  Most 
pruners  leave  too  much  of  the  old  wood.  In  such  cases 
the  heart  wood  decays  leaving  only  a  thin  cylinder  of 
living  wood.  This  becomes  so  weak  that  the  loaded 
branches  break  unless  propped  or  wired,  processes  which 
are  both  costly  and  unsatisfactory. 

188.  Pruning    and    shaping    orange    trees.— According    to    J.    \\ . 
Mills,*  the  tendency  of  young  trees  of  Washington  Navel  and  some 
other  varieties  to  assume  a  drooping  habit  when  making  a  vigorous 
g  owth  is  because  the  soft  shoots  are  unable  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  large,  heavy  leaves.    Even  trees  that  have  been  long  in  bear- 
ing will  be  benefited  by  pinching  back  every  branch  that  takes  too 
vigorous   an   upward   growth.     This   pinching  process   is   especially 
necessary  with  trees  one  to  five  years  old. 

188a.  Pruning  bearing  trees.— An  upright  tree  has  a  decided  ad- 
vantage over  a  drooping  one  when  loaded  with  fruit.  The  crop 
is  borne  with  less  breakage  of  limbs,  and  not  so  much  fruit  is  in- 
jured by  the  wind.  After  the  trees  are  in  full  bearing,  there  seems 
to  be  no  pruning  that  will  promote  the  health  of  the  trees  or  im- 
prove the  crop  other  than  cutting  out  limbs  that  project  abruptly 
from  the  side,  or  those  that  make  a  sudden  skyward  growth,  and 
the  constant  trimming  out  of  dead  or  stunted  wood  found  on  the 
inside  of  the  trees. 

If  too  close,  the  branches  should  be  thinned  out  from  the  inside 
until  the  sunlight  has  had  free  access.  This  does  not  make  any 
noticeable  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  tree,  but  makes  it 
bear  fruit  on  the  inside.  Such  fruit  is  safe  from  sunburn  and  frost 
and  packs  as  "fancy"  grade.  By  early  attention  to  pruning,  the 
trees  need  never  be  allowed  to  grow  too  close  in  the  center. 

189.  Renewal  of  tops. — Some  groves  of  old  orange  trees  do  not 
respond   to   even'  the   best   treatment    the    owners    can    give   them. 
Under  such  circumstances,  the  most  effective  way  to  stimulate  new 
life  and  vigor  is  sometimes  to  remove  the  entire  top,  leaving  enough 
of  each  of  the  main  limbs  to  distribute  equally  the  suckers  that  will 
afterward   make  the  new  top  of   the  tree.     If  the  tops   are  only 
thinned  out  and  but  partially  cut  back,  there  will  be  a  proportionate 
amount  of  feeble  growth  and  a  corresponding  lack  of  productiveness. 

An  old  orange  tree  will  rapidly  produce  a  new  top,  even  when  cut 
back  to  a  mere  stump.  It  is  soon  in  a  condition  to  bear  again  at 
its  full  capacity.  When  the  roots  are  healthy  and  the  soil  is  prop- 
erly cultivated  and  fertilized,  the  orange  tree  appears  able  to  produce 

*  California    Experiment   Station    Bulletin    138. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES  237 

several  generations  of  tops  on  one  stock.  But  it  will  generally  be 
found  that  the  trouble  with  old,  non-productive  trees  lies  in  the 
root-system,  or  in  the  management  of  soil,  or  in  both.  Thorough 
investigation  of  roots  and  soil  should  be  made  before  any  severe 
cutting  or  pruning  of  the  top  is  resorted  to. 

Except  as  noted  in  preceding  paragraphs,  all  trees  should  be 
trained  low  for  protection  against  frost,  heat  and  wind,  and  to  aid 
the  gathering  of  fruit.  Heavily  laden  branches  are  generally  propped 
to  prevent  breaking  down,  as  the  loss  from  dropping  and  splitting 
is  so  great  that  the  trees  cannot  be  safely  lightened  by  thinning  the 
fruit  when  small. 

190.  Pruning  and  training  young  lemon  trees.* — The  lemon  tree 
must  be  watched  closely  and  built  up  year  by  year,  and  deck  by 
deck.  The  first  and  most  important  thing  to  consider  is  the  building 
of  the  framework,  which  must  carry  a  heavy  load  of  fruit  and 
which  should  be  strong  enough  at  bearing  age  to  support  this  weight 
without  breaking.  Three  kinds  of  materials  are  needed  :  building 
wood  to  construct  the  frame,  fruit,  limbs  and  spurs  to  bear  fruit. 
Building  wood  is  that  part  of  the  growth  that  is  inclined  to  grow 
straight  up,  and  when  a  tree  is  young  sometimes  outward  at  an 
angle.  Fruit  limbs  grow  from  1  to  2l/2  feet  long  and  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  position  on  the  frame  of  the  tree  and  by  the 
ends  of  the  limbs,  which  show  matured  leaves  and  indications  of 
buds  forming  at  the  tips.  Sometimes  a  blossom  occurs  and  often  a 
little  cluster  of  lemons.  Fruit  spurs  are  the  growths  that  come  on 
these  fruit  limbs,  as  also  on  the  framework  of  the  tree,  if  the  tree 
is  of  a  fruiting  nature. 

Another  growth  about  which  there  is  a  good  deal  of  discussion 
is  the  sucker  wood.  A  growth,  or  sprout,  is  a  sucker  only  when  it 
grows  where  it  cannot  be  used  on  that  part  of  a  tree  already  de- 
veloped. The  question  has  been  raised,  When  is  a  sucker  not  a 
sucker?  When  something  unexpectedly  happens  to  a  part  of  the 
tree  so  the  sucker  may  be  used,  not  for  a  fruit  limb,  but  as  a  part 
of  the  tree.  For  instance,  when  a  large  limb  has  split  off  one  side 
of  a  tree,  just  above  it  being  a  sucker  12  to  16  inches  long.  The 
split  limb  may  be  taken  off  entirely  and  the  abrasion  smoothed  off 
and  painted.  The  sucker  may  then  be  tied  to  the  main  part  of  the 
tree  to  prevent  its  breaking  off,  when  it  is  large  enough  to  cut  back 
at  the  proper  point  to  make  it  branch  and  spread  it  may  be  used  to 
fill  in  the  gap.  In  this  case  the  sprout  was  a  sucker  when  it  could 
not  be  used,  but  when  circumstances  permitted  its  use  it  was  no 
longer  one. 

Building  a  lemon  tree  is  accomplished  by  a  systematic  cutting  out 
and  back.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  tree  should  not 
be  expected  or  allowed  to  bear  fruit  during  the  building  of  the  frame. 
More  and  better  fruit  will  be  produced  at  an  earlier  date  than  if  the 

*  Excerpt  from  an  address  by  W.  H.  Fleet  before  the  Special  Citrus  Convention, 
San  Bernardino,  Cal.,  February,  1916. 


238  PRINCIPLES    AM)    PRACTICE    OK    PRUNING 

tree  is  allowed  to  follow  its  natural  propensities,  as  the  fruit  limbs  and 
fruit  spurs  will  develop  each  year  in  the  part  of  the  frame  built  in 
previous  years.  It  must  be  remembered  while  building  the  frame- 
work of  the  tree  that  fruit  limbs  and  fruit  spurs  are  being  developed 
also,  and  care  must  be  exercised  during  the  building  process  not  to 
trim  out  these  fruit  limbs  or  fruit  spurs  except  where  they  are  too 
thick.  Never  crop  off  the  ends  of  the  fruit  limbs  or  fruit  spurs. 

The  question  when  to  begin  to  build  or  train  a  lemon  tree  is  an 
important  one.  When  the  bud  sprout  grown  from  the  seedling 
stock  has  reached  a  height  in  the  nursery  so  it  may  be  cut  off  at  a 
point  where  there  is  matured  wood,  32  to  34  inches  from  the  ground, 
is  the  time  to  begin  training  and  developing  the  tree.  Up  to  this 
time  it  has  had  to  be  held  up  by  stakes  and  given  every  care,  not 
having  been  trusted  to  its  own  propensities.  Now,  it  is  to  be  cut 
back.  On  the  little  stick  or  stem  will  be  built  a  crown  as  a  founda- 
tion of  the  tree.  The  height  of  cutting  back  to  begin  the  framework 
is  a  matter  of  choice  with  the  orchardist.  I  prefer  a  crown  started 
within  32  to  34  inches  of  the  ground.  Four  branches  or  crown 
limbs  are  allowed  to  grow  out  from  the  stem,  no  one  being  opposite 
another.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  carry  out  this  particular  plan 
in  the  crowning  of  the  tree,  but  in  most  cases  the  limbs  can  be 
spaced  so  as  not  to  allow  one  to  come  exactly  opposite  another  (127). 
I  prefer  to  have  only  two  limbs  with  the  center  stem,  if  it  be  not 
possible  to  grow  four  without  having  one  opposite  another.  Three 
crown  limbs  are  enough  and  four  are  plenty. 

It  is  dangerous  to  make  cuts  too  long  the  first  two  or  three  years, 
as  long  cuts  mean  small  limbs  and  weak  frames.  If  the  tree  is 
planted  early  and  makes  a  good  growth,  the  first  pruning  may  be 
necessary  in  August  or  September.  This  will  be  the  thinning  out 
of  the  top  branches  and  cutting  back  rather  short  those  limbs  which 
are  needed  to  make  part  of  the  framework.  By  first  pruning  I  d<> 
not  mean  suckering  or  rubbing  off  the  water  sprouts,  etc.  It  is 
very  important  to  keep  the  tree,  especially  the  trunk,  free  from 
suckers. 

A  young  tree  should  be  watched  very  closely  the  first  two  or 
three  years.  If  it  forms  the  habit  of  suckering,  especially  on  its 
trunk,  there  will  be  trouble  in  starting  the  sap  in  full  flow  through 
the  limbs  and  foliage  of  the  tree.  Also  allowing  the  suckers  to 
grow  stunts  the  growth  of  the  tree.  Therefore,  the  suckers  should 
be  taken  off  when  they  are  so  tender  that  they  can  be  rubbed  off  with 
the  hand.  Rubbing  them  when  they  are  very  tender  prevents  knots 
from  forming  on  the  trunk  or  limbs.  These  I  believe  retard  the  free 
flow  of  the  sap. 

In  pruning  a  lemon  tree  planted  nine  months  in  the  orchard  the 
tall  branches  are  cut  back  very  short  for  the  next  deck  or  frame- 
work. This  close  cutting  is  done  to  develop  strength  in  the  crown 
of  the  tree  before  a  heavy  top  growth  is  developed.  Although  this 
tree  is  only  nine  months  old,  some  short,  healthy  wood  developed 


PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES  239 

in  the  nursery  has  been  allowed  to  remain  in  the  crown.  These 
little  fruit  limbs  will,  during  the  second  year  of  growth,  blossom 
and  set  some  fruit. 

From  now  on  the  fruit  spurs  and  fruit  limbs  may  be  left  in  the 
crown  of  the  tree,  so  they  may  grow  and  produce  lemons  in  limited 
quantities  while  the  tree  is  young.  Do  not  be  alarmed  if  trees  one 
or  two  years  old  begin  to  bear.  Let  them  get  the  habit  while  they 
are  young.  A  lemon  tree  properly  trained  and  pruned,  should  bear 
a  fair  crop  when  three  years  old.  The  little  limbs  will  first  blos- 
som on  the  ends,  bearing  from  one  to  three  lemons.  Then  on  the 
limb,  back  toward  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  fruit  spurs  will  develop 
and  set  fruit. 

Tall  limbs  should  be  cut  back  from  6  to  12  inches,  depending  upon 
the  fruit  line,  or  deck,  a  vertical  growth  of  fruit  limbs  that  will 
blossom  and  set  fruit  on  the  ends,  then  bend  downward,  causing 
fruit  spurs  to  develop  on  them.  Each  year  a  new  deck  of  fruit  wood 
or  limbs  is  developed.  This  growth  should  be  cut  only  when  it  be- 
comes too  thick. 

It  is  important  to  go  over  the  two-year  trees  at  least  twice  a  year 
to  take  all  suckers  and  cut  back  the  limbs  that  have  grown  out  of 
proportion  to  the  other  part  of  the  tree;  such  growth  is  round  and 
not  smaller  than  a  lead  pencil ;  larger  would  be  better.  Never  cut 
angular  wood.  In  some  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  out  entire 
limbs  if  they  have  grown  too  thick,  and  also  to  cut  those  back  that 
have  grown  in  the  right  place  to  add  to  the  framework  of  the  tree. 

Some  of  the  tender  growth  will  commence  to  develop  rapidly 
early  in  the  spring  of  the  fourth  year,  and  so  will  have  to  be  gone 
over  at  least  three  times  to  thin  out  and  cut  back  at  proper  points. 
A  lemon  tree  at  this  age,  properly  pruned  and  trained,  should  show 
a  well-defined  fruit  line. 

When  a  lemon  tree  reaches  10  or  12  years,  very  little  cutting  back 
is  necessary.  Yet  almost  all  of  the  vertical  growth  should  be  taken 
out.  A  tree  properly  pruned  from  its  infancy  is  brought  to  this  age 
without  large  stubby  limbs  near  the  top  of  the  tree.  This  method 
of  pruning  and  training  of  a  young  lemon  orchard  will  bring  the 
trees  to  full  bearing  age  without  any  long  bare  limbs  devoid  of  fruit 
limbs  and  fruit  spurs  on  the  frame  of  the  tree.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  allow  the  growth  to  become  too  thick.  Sometimes 
it  may  be  necessary  to  take  out  a  whole  limb  and  open  the  tree  to 
let  in  the  air  and  light,  so  the  fruit-bearing  wood  in  the  interior  of 
the  tree  will  bear  fruit.  The  tendency  is  to  allow  much  of  the 
growth  to  become  woody  and,  therefore,  to  be  wasted  because  it 
will  have  to  be  taken  out.  Therefore,  time  will  be  lost  in  the  proper 
building  of  the  frame  of  the  tree  and  in  the  development  of  fruit- 
bearing  wood. 

191.  Good  rules  in  training  and  pruning  young  lemon  trees. — 
1.  Use  sharp  shears  so  as  to  make  a  smooth  cut.  2.  Never  cut  off 
a  limb  over  -^-inch  thick  with  the  shears.  Use  a  sharp  saw,  smooth 


240  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 

with  a  knife  and  then  wax.  Every  limb  ^-inch  and  over  when  out 
should  be  waxed,  especially  in  training  and  pruning  trees  up  to  five 
or  six  years  old.  3.  In  cutting  out  limbs  entirely,  cut  close  and 
smooth,  then  wax.  Do  not  leave  stubs.  4.  Never  cut  angular 
wood.  Where  a  cut  is  made  the  wood  should  be  round, 
no  smaller  than  a  lead  pencil,  and  a  little  larger  would  be 
better.  5.  Never  crop  or  shear  off  ends  of  fruit  limbs.  Never 
shear  the  tree  under  any  circumstances.  6.  Keep  the  trees  free 
of  water  sprouts,  especially  the  trunks  of  the  young  trees. 
7.  When  in  doubt  leave  it !  That  is,  when  in  doubt  whether  a  limb 
ought  to  be  cut  out  or  cut  off,  leave  it  until  next  time.  It  may  be 
taken  out  in  the  future  if  necessary,  but  if  cut  off  it  can  never 
be  put  back.  It  is  necessary  to  go  over  the  orchard  at  least  three 
times  a  year  with  the  pruning  shears.  8.  Never  cut  out  the  little- 
fruit  limbs  which  grow  in  the  framework  of  the  tree  unless  they 
become  too  thick. 

A  very  important  point  which  should  not  be  overlooked  is  the  soil. 
Unless  the  soil  is  kept  in  good  physical  condition,  manufacturing 
food  for  the  tree,  one  cannot  expect  good  results.  The  framework 
of  the  tree  has  been  built.  On  it  are  hundreds  of  fruit  limbs,  fruit 
spurs  have  set,  thousands  of  buds  are  ready  to  produce  more  fruit 
limbs  and  spurs,  and  more  fruit  limbs  are  continually  coming  into 
bearing,  so  unless  the  tree  is  properly  and  regularly  fed  one  cannot 
expect  prolific  and  continuous  fruiting.  Every  bud  on  the  lemon 
tree  is  capable  of  growing  fruit  limbs  and  fruit  spurs — even  down  on 
its  trunk  to  the  ground.  Keep  the  food  reservoir  in  good  running 
order,  furnishing  the  proper  diet  for  the  tree.  With  the  proper 
handling  of  the  soil  and  proper  training  and  pruning  one  can  de- 
velop a  tree  which  will  always  and  indefinitely  be  a  prolific  bearer 
and  a  profit  to  its  owner. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PRUNING  MATURE  TREES 

When  the  principles  of  pruning  (Chapter  V)  have  been 
properly  applied  in  the  education  of  young  trees  as  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  X,  the  mature  trees  will,  barring  ac- 
cidents, need  very  little  annual  attention — a  mere  re- 
minder now  and  then  of  their  training  and  purpose  in  life. 
From  the  time  they  come  into  bearing  the  pruner  should 
expend  his  energy  for  sawing,  hacking  and  whittling  up- 
on some  friendly  wood  pile  where  he  will  do  no  harm  to 
his  fruit  crop  prospects  and  the  well-being  of  his  trees. 
For  the  trees  can  be  thrown  out  of  bearing  very  easily  by 
injudicious  pruning.  They 
may  even  be  made  to  produce 
brush  without  fruit  when 
erroneous  pruning  is  extensive 
enough  and  continues  from 
year  to  year. 

192.  Bearing  habit  dictates 
style  of  pruning. — As  already 
noted  (56),  fruit  trees  bear 
their  fruit  buds  in  two  general 
ways  —  laterally,  as  in  the 
peach  ;  and  terminally,  as  in  the 
apple.  There  are  many  excep- 
tions where  various  varieties 
bear  both  ways,  but  the  rule  is 
as  stated.  Naturally  the  trees 
which  produce  fruit  from  lat- 
eral (axillary)  buds,  set  more 
buds  and  will  stand  more  prun- 
ing of  the  smaller  branches 
than  will  the  other  kind,  be- 

241 


FIG.  201.— INVITING   DISASTER. 
This    shows    how    not    to    cut    a 
limb.     A  stub  is  always  a  menace 
because  decay  is  sure  to  enter. 


242 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE    ():•'    PRUNING 


cause  this  pruning  helps  to  thin  the  fruit  (  106).  Such  a 
method  applied  totrees  which  produce  terminal  fruit  buds, 
wholly  or  largely,  would  probably  not  only  destroy  to.) 
many  fruit  buds,  but  also  upset  the  normal  habit  of 
growth  and  cause  the  development  of  wood,  even  to  the 
extent  of  destroying  the  bearing  habit  altogether.  Kven 
with  trees  that  produce  axillary  buds,  good  judgment  is 
needed,  for  the  bearing  habit  may  differ  among  varieties 
as  well  as  species.  For  instance,  the  peach  bears  its  fruit 
buds  on  strong  annual  growths  of  last  year;  whereas  the 

cherry  blooms  on  less  vigorous 
twigs.  Therefore  the  severe 
pruning  considered  ideal  for 
the  peach  would  in  the  cherry 
develop  many  and  large  twi^ 
which  would  bear  little  fruit. 
Apples  and  pears,  which  form 
axillary  fruit  buds  and  also 
terminal  ones  on  young  fruit 
spurs,  must  be  pruned  more 
severely  than  those  which  bear 
in  the  more  normal  way,  be- 
cause they  are  prone  to  over- 
bear. To  sum  this  matter  up, 
then,  the  primer  may  decide 


FIG.  202 
UNPARDONABLE   "PRUNING" 

This  style  of  cutting  courts  dis- 
aster because  it  favors  the  en- 
trance of  decay.  The  wound 
should  be  close  to  the  trunk  as  llOW  milch  he  Shall  prime  each 

tree  by  noting  the  way  in 
which  it  forms  the  majority  of  its  fruit  buds. 

193.  Pruning  the  apple. — Tn  a  general  way  the  follow- 
ing rules,  based  on  the  principles  already  discussed 
(Chapter  V),  will  aid  the  pruner  in  developing  his  judg- 
ment of  how  to  prune  bearing  trees,  not  only  of  apples 
but  of  other  fruits : 

1.  Study  the  habit  of  growth  as  well  as  the  method  of 
fruit  bud  formation.  Trees  which  normally  grow  erect 
may  be  spread  somewhat  by  cutting  to  outside  buds: 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


243 


those  which  tend  to  sprawl   may  be  raised  slightly  by 
pruning  to  upper  buds  (120). 

2.  Save  the  small  shoots,  because  many  of  them  are 
fruit  spurs  and  the  others  may  later  become  such.     If 
they  are   stripped   off,   the   tree   will   not  be   as  prolific. 
It  may  even  be  made  barren  (Figs.  171,  189). 

3.  Remove  dead,   diseased  and  broken  limbs,  making 
the  cuts  cleanly  and  close  to  the  larger  tree  parts  which 
bear  them  (Fig.  93). 

4.  Cut  out  water  sprouts   and   suckers  except   where 
needed  to  fill  in  gaps.  Where  needed,  shorten  them  so  as 


FIG.    203— CROSS    SECTION    OF    TRUNK    SHOWN    IN    FIG.    204. 

At  the  top   a  stub  healed  over  but  decayed  beneath.     At  the  left  a  little  healthy  stub 

healed  over.    Below,  the  hole  left  by  decay  of  limb  shown  diagonally  in  Fig.  204. 

to  compel  branching  and  later  the  fruit-bearing  habit.  In 
properly  handled  bearing  trees  such  growths  are  not  ex- 
cessive either  in  number  or  size,  so  there  is  usually  little 
need  of  saving  them.  They  are  of  most  interest  to  old  trees 


244 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


which  need  renovation.     In  such  cases  they  should  be 

shortened  to  two  or  three  good  buds  so  they  will  form 

fruit  spurs.  If  they  do  not  so 
develop  they  should  be  re- 
moved. The  easiest  way  to  re- 
move water  sprouts  is  while 
they  are  still  succulent  in  mid- 
spring,  when  they  may  IK- 
easily  pulled  off  by  boys. 

5.  Avoid  cutting  large 
branches  as  much  as  possible. 
Rather  remove  an  equal 
amount  of  wood  by  cutting  sev- 
eral small  branches,  say  the 
thickness  of  one's  thumb, 
mainly  because  small  wounds 
will  heal  quicker  than  large 
ones,  but  also  because  the  re- 
moval of  large  branches  leaves 
big  gaps  in  some  places,  where- 
as others  will  be  as  dense  as 

ever.    Sun  scald  of  the  branches  often  follows  the  removal 

of  too  large  branches. 

6.  Cut   back  leaders   which   are   over-developing   and 
threatening  to  injure  the  form  of  the  tree,  but  always  cut 
back  to  some  shoot  which   will   take  up   the  work  and 
also  aid  in  healing  the  wound.     In  other  words,  never 
leave  a   stub    (Fig.   92).     Following  this   rule   will    aid 
in  keeping  the  trees  low-headed  and,  hence,  also  help  the 
work  of  spraying,  thinning  and  harvesting. 

7.  At  least  one  of  such  limbs  as  cross  or  seriously  in- 
terfere with  others,  especially  in  the  interior  of  the  tree, 
should  be    removed.     When    trees   have   been   properly 
trained,  however,  these  limbs  will  be  neither  large  nor 
numerous  before  discovered. 

8.  If  necessary  thin  out  the  top.     Usually,  however,  it 


FIG.  204 
HOW    TREES    BURY    STUBS 

The  lightest  colored  wood  is  the 
youngest.  It  is  being  used  to  try 
to  bury  the  stub.  Decay  has  rotted 
out  much  of  the  stub  wood  down 
into  the  heart  of  the  ^ree.  In  the 
lower  left  corner,  note  that  the 
wood  has  healed  in  a  small  decay- 
ing stub.  No  hope  for  trees 
handled  in  this  way. 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


245 


will  not  be  necessary  to  do  much  of  this  because  the  rules 
given  above  will  have  done  enough  thinning. 

9.  Branches  that  threaten  to  form  Y  crotches  should 
be  handled  as  already  indicated  (127). 

10.  Should  a  neglected  orchard  need  very  severe  prun- 
ing to  bring  it  back  to  shape,  it  will  usually  be  an  ad- 
vantage to  do  the  work  in  the  winter  preceding  a  full 
crop  year. 

194.  Pruning  to  remedy  winter  injury.— Pruning  experiments 
were  undertaken  by  William  Stuart*  with  a  view  of  bettering  the 
condition  of  some  winter-injured  trees.  These  were  inaugurated 
in  early  June  in  an  orchard  where  a  number  of  eight-year-old 
Rhode  Island  Greening  trees  were  severely  injured.  Some  of  the 
trees  were  severely  pruned  back  after  the  secondary  buds  had 
pushed  ojt  new  growths,  others  were  somewhat  less  vigorously 
handled,  while  yet  others  were  left  untouched.  It  was  thought  that 
the  severe  pruning  of  trees  on  which  new  growths  were  being 
pushed  out  at  the  base  of  the  limbs  would  tend  to  throw  all  the 

strength  of  the  tree  into   a  few      _; 

branches,  thereby  securing  dur- 
ing the  first  season  a  much  more 
vigorous  development  as  well  as 
a  much  more  shapely  head. 

Photographs  were  made  of 
the  injured  trees  both  before 
and  after  pruning  June  9,  again 
on  August  1.5  of  the  same  sea- 
son, and  a  final  set  September 
27  of  the  following  season.  A 
careful  study  of  these  affords 
little  evidence  that  pruning  was 
beneficial.  A  comparison  of  one 
set  would  show  a  decided  ad- 
vantage in  favor  of  pruning, 
while  that  of  another  set  would 
be  equally  favorable  to  the  un- 
pruned.  While  no  very  sweep- 
ing conclusions  can  be  formed 
from  a  single  experiment,  con- 
ducted on  a  rather  small  scale  and 
under  unfavorable  conditions, 
this  much  at  least  may  be  said: 


*  Vermont    Experiment    Station    An- 
nual Report,   1901. 


FIG.  205.— WINTER  INJURED  RHODE 
ISLAND  GREENING  APPLE  TREE 
BEFORE  PRUNING  IN  EARLY 
JUNE.  NOTICE  EXTENT  OF 
DAMAGE. 


246 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   Or    PRUNING 


(1).  That  in  cases  of  winter  injury  like  that  mentioned  above 
practically  nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  the  h^sty  removal  of  the 
greater  portion  of  the  head  of  the  tree.  In  other  words,  severe 
pruning  is  inadvisable  and  is  probably  more  often  injurious  than 
beneficial.  (2).  That  in  the  light  of  the  observations  made  it  would 
seem  advisable  to  defer  pruning  operations  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
growing  season  or  possibly  until  the  following  spring.  (3).  That 
whenever  pruning  is  to  be  done  no  more  branches  should  be  removed 
than  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  balance  of  the  tree  top.  (4).  That 
winter  injury  could  be  avoided  by  keeping  the  tree  in  a  thrifty,  vigor- 
ous condition.  Weak,  unhealthy  trees  are  less  able  to  stand  extremes 
of  temperature  than  thrifty  ones.  Compare  statements  by  Whitten 
(203). 

195.  Mature  pear  trees,  if  properly  trained  while  young 
and  if  healthy,  require  little  pruning.  Even  when  un- 


FIG.    206 

PRUNED      APPLE 
This  is  the  same 
tree    as    shown    in 
FIR.  205. 


FIG.    207— AUGUST 
Tree    shown    in    F'g. 
206  as  seen  in  August; 
67   days   after  pruning. 


FIG.    203 

SEPTEMBER       SHOWING 
One     hundred     and     ten 
days     after     pruning     tree 
shown   in    Fig.    207. 


pruned  they  bear  tolerably  well. 
But  for  high-grade  fruit  judicious 
pruning  is  necessary.  In  general  the  fruiting  habit  resembles 
the  apple.  The  habit  of  growth  is  more  erect,  but  pear  trirs 
may  be  readily  trained  in  almost  any  form  desired,  as,  for 
instance,  espaliers,  cordons,  etc.  (Chapter  XVII).  Gen- 
erally the  trees  in  commercial  orchards  develop  as  nature 
dictates,  but  broad,  low  heads  are  not  hard  to  secure. 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


247 


One  disadvantage  of  tall  trees  is  that  the  fruits  borne 
high  up  are  knocked  off  or  rendered  unsightly  by  wind; 
another  that  spraying,  thinning  and  harvesting  are  need- 
lessly expensive.  The  form  which  the  mature  tree  shall 
maintain  is  mainly  decided  by  the  pruning  of  the  young 
trees.  Heading  back  to  outward  pointing  buds  and  twigs 
will  tend  toward  broadness  of  top,  and  if  the  erect  lead- 
ers are  cut,  the  trees  should  be  kept  low-headed  without 
much  trouble.  To  attain  this  form,  the  work  should  be 
done  while  the  trees  are  young,  otherwise  heading  back 
a  tree  which  has  grown  at  random  will  produce  great 
quantities  of  wood  which  will  not  bear.  If  the  tree  is 
in  good  bearing  when  this 
heading-in  is  done,  the  fruit 
spurs  will  probably  develop 
long  shoots  instead  of  fruits, 
and  this  will  be  all  the  more 
pronounced  when  the  pruning 
is  done  in  the  "off  year,"  for  it 
will  force  the  development  of 
the  branch  buds. 

It  is  an  erroneous  notion  that 
the  pear  must  not  be  pruned. 
Some  varieties,  notably  Anjou, 
must  be  pruned  severely  while 
dormant  in  order  to  get  profit- 
able crops  of  fruit.  If  not  so 
pruned,  a  large  proportion  of 
the  blossoms  or  the  young  fruit 
will  fall.  Men  successful  with 
such  varieties  cut  out  a  good 
deal  of  wood  annually  until  the 
trees  begin  to  bear  good  crops. 

Tardy  blooming  varieties  must  not  be  pruned  heavily 
while  dormant  because  they  would  thus  develop  wood 
(83).  Pruning  in  early  summer  is  sometimes  helpful. 


FIG.  209— HEALTHY  PEAR  BARK 
SHOWING   LENTICELS 


24S 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


FIG..  2 10— FUNGI  ATTACK 
INJURED    BARK 


Stripping  (99)  may  also  help.     It  is 
probably  safer  than  girdling. 

Just  how  much  pruning  may  be 
done  in  mature  pear  trees  must  be 
left  to  the  primer's  judgment  and 
experience,  the  idea  being  more  to 
thin  and  thus  improve  the  quality  of 
the  fruit  than  to  remove  wood  for 
its  own  sake.  Such  a  policy  will 
tend  toward  regular  annual  bearing. 
Pruning  of  this  kind,  however,  can- 
not wholly  obviate  thinning  the 
fruit  itself  in  summer.  Both  prac- 
tices are  necessary  as  a  general  rule. 
196.  Pear  blight,  if  it  attacks  the 
trees,  will  upset  even  the  best  prun- 
ing methods.  Yet  the  damage  this  disease  may  d<>  may 
be  very  largely  prevented  by  a 
proper  system  of  training  (173). 
Heavy  pruning  shou  Id  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible ;  also  all  soil 
management  that  makes  for  heavy 
growth — notably  over-cultivation, 
over- fertilizing  with  nitrogenous 
manures  and  the  excessive  use  of 
leguminous  cover  crops — because 
trees  in  rank  growth  are  more  sus- 
ceptible to  blight  than  those  less 
amply  nourished.  Since  the  chief 
points  of  infection  are  the  blos- 
soms, thence  through  the  fruit 
spurs  to  the  branches,  the  develop- 
ment of  fruit  spurs  on  main  limbs 
should  be  prevented  as  much  as 
possible.  Instead,  the  growth  of  HG.  211— PEAR 

MITS    BLIGHT 

strong  new  wood  should  be  encour-       TMs  stub  wa«  wilted  b*- 
aged  so  that  new  fruit  spurs  ma       yZJSJT* 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


249 


be  developed  to  take  the  place  of  those  that  must  be 
removed  because  of  becoming  infected.  The  two  im- 
perative rules  for  preventing  the  spreading  of  blight  are 
(1)  cut  out  and  burn  all  infected  parts,  making  the  cuts  jn 
healthy  wood  below  the  lowest  point  of  discoloration  of 
the  wood  (as  viewed  in  cross  section  of  the  twig  or 
branch)  and  (2)  the  thorough  sterilization  of  all  wounds 
and  tools  after  making  each  and  every  cut.  (Figs.  183, 
209  to  213.) 

197.  The  quince  is  trained  either  as  a  bush  with  severrl 
stems  or  as  a  tree  with  only  one  stem.  Each  form  has  its 
advocates.  The  points  claimed  for  the  bush  form  are 
that  damage  from  borers  is  likely  to  be  less  serious  than 
where  only  one  stem  is  maintained  and  that  there  may  be 
a  constant  succession  of  new  wood  to  replace  the  old. 

The   claims   for  the   tree  form   are    

that  the  plantation  is  easier  to  man- 
age than  where  there  are  several 
stems  and  that  the  likelihood  of 
damage  from  T)orers  is  less  seri- 
ous than  it  is  believed  to  be,  pro- 
vided proper  attention  is  given  the 
trees. 

To  secure  the  bush  form  one 
sprout  is  allowed  to  grow  each  year 
from  the  base  of  the  plant  in  the 
same  kind  of  way  that  currant  and 
gooseberry  canes  are  allowed  to 
grow.  The  old  stems  are  removed 
after  having  fruited  three  to  six 
times,  depending  mainly  upon  the  FIG.  212 

health     of    the     nlant        Sometimes     BLIGHT  SPREAD   FROM 

PRUNING  WOUND 

there   may   be    as    many    as   six   or       This   stub    became   in- 

cf*\r(*r\      cfpmc     nf     ^irirnic     -acrpc     in      n  fected  from  an  unsterilized 

1     a  saw.       The    blight    spread 

bush,   but   four   is    probably   the    COm-  downward  rapidly.    As  seen 

A  f  .  now  the  diseased  tissue  has 

ITlOnest     number.        Ihe    tree    torm    IS  been  pruned  away  and  the 

i  1      •          ,1  •  wound    is    ready   for   disin- 

produced    in    the    same    way    as   in    fection. 


250 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


the   growing   of  other  fruit   trees.     Some   varieties   are 
more  amenable  than  others  to  this  form. 

Annual  pruning  after  the  quince  reaches  the  bearing 
age  consists  in  thinning  the  young  growth  and  shorten- 


FIG.   213— CANKERED    LIMB    SHOWING    BLIGHT   EXUDATIONS 
These  sticky,  milky    drops   are   made    up    almost   wholly   of  blight    bacteria 

ing  the  balance  50  to  70  per  cent.  When  properly  man- 
aged, the  annual  growths  should  be  from  1  to  2  feet,  with 
an  excellent  range  of  15  to  18  inches.  When  the  growth 
is  rank  the  buds  which  are  to  produce  blooming  shoots 
will  be  near  the  tips  and  so  will  largely  be  lost  in  the 
pruning.  The  best  buds,  by  the  way,  are  not  usually  the 
terminals  but  the  laterals  on  the  upper  half  of  the  annual 
growths.  The  main  ideas  in  annual  pruning  should  be 
to  keep  the  plant  well  within  bounds  and  to  secure  an 
ample  supply  of  new  shoots  each  year.  Since  the  quince 
is  susceptible  to  fire  blight,  care  should  be  exercised  to 
cut  out  and  burn  affected  parts  whenever  discovered,  just 
as  in  the  case  of  the  pear  (196). 

198.  The  mature  cherry  tree  requires  little  pruning  if 
it  has  been  properly  started  and  trained  for  three  or  four 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES  251 

years.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  it  low-headed.  There 
is  no  difficulty  in  doing  this  with  the  sour  varieties  and 
even  the  tall-growing  sweet  varieties  may  be  made  to 
form  spreading  heads  like  apple  trees  by  judicious  heading 
back.  Unless  so  pruned  sweet  varieties  will  often  reach 
heights  of  35  or  40  feet  when  25  years  old.  Since  the 
bearing  wood  is  always  near  the  ends  of  the  branches  too 
much  time  will  be  required  to  harvest  the  crop.  Then, 
too,  spraying  is  more  difficult  and  costly  on  such  tall 
trees. 

The  aims  with  both  sweet  and  sour  varieties  should 
be  to  keep  the  fruiting  parts  of  the  trees  as  near  the 
ground  as  possible,  to  develop  fruiting  wood  throughout 
the  whole  top  and  to  keep  the  trunks  and  frame  limbs 
well  shaded  so  danger  of  sun  scald  will  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  In  all  pruning  to  develop  fruiting  wood,  the 
fruiting  habit  of  the  cherry  (56,  64)  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  because  trees  with  this  habit  will  not  submit  to  ex- 
cessive cutting.  Over-pruning  will  force  excessive  growths 
of  strong  wood  which  bears  fruit  buds  sparsely.  On 
the  other  hand  the  fruit  spurs  on  trees  neglected  from  the 
pruning  standpoint,  become  puny  and  spindling  after 
bearing  constantly  for  several  years,  and  what  fruit  is 
borne  appears  singly  instead  of  in  clusters  of  two  or  more. 
Also  the  fruits  so  produced  are  usually  of  inferior  size. 

Varieties  which  produce  abundance  of  bloom,  but 
which  set  fruit  sparsely,  thus  indicate  that  they  are  either 
not  being  pruned  correctly  or  severely  enough,  or  that 
they  are  self-sterile.  In  the  former  case  it  is  recommended 
that  they  be  severely  pruned  while  dormant ;  in  the  latter, 
that  fertilizing  varieties  be  either  grafted  or  budded  in 
or  planted  near  by.  In  cases  where  few  or  no  blossoms 
are  produced  the  trouble  may  be  that  the  trees  have  been 
pruned  too  severely  or  fed  too  liberally,  or,  in  irrigated 
orchards,  that  too  much  water  has  been  applied  during1 


252 


PRINCIPLES    AND    1'KACTH'E    OF    PRUNING 


the  previous  season.     In  each  of  these  cases  the  reverse 
method  is  indicated. 

199.  The  mature  plum  tree. — While   there   are  mam 
species  of  plums   which   differ  more   or   less   widely   in 


FIG.  214— FROST-KILLED   PEACH  WOOD  VARIOUSLY  HANDLED 
Left,    tree    not    cut    back    in    spring   before    or    spring    after    the    winter    injury. 
Middle,    tree  cut   back   both   spring  before   and    after   that   winter.      Right,   tree   cut 
back  spring  after,  but   not   before    said   winter.     The   dark   portion    represents   new 
wood   formed  since  the   injury. 

their  habits  of  growth,  yet  growers  of  varieties  now  used 
for  commercial  purposes  agree  that  the  trees  must  be 
pruned  far  less  severely  than  peach  trees  because  the 
fruit  is  borne  largely  on  spurs  which  may  continue  pro- 
lific for  four  or  more  years,  but  more  severely  than  the 
apple,  partly  because  some  of  the  fruit  is  produced  by 
lateral  buds  and  partly  because  it  is  necessary  tti 
renew  the  bearing  wood  oftener  than  in  the  case  of  the 
apple. 

Since  the   trunks   and   the   frame   limbs   of   plum   trees 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


253 


are  easily  injured  by  sun,  pruning  should  aim  to  keep 
plenty  of  leafage  in  the  top  to  shade  these  susceptible 
parts.  Yet  it  is  necessary  to  cut  back  and  thin  out  the 
tops  of  most  varieties,  especially  of  the  Americana  class, 
so  as  to  maintain  a  good  form,  a  low  head  and  enough 
light  and  air  to  favor  the  production  of  first  quality  fruit. 
The  Domestica  varieties,  as  a  rule,  including  the  prunes, 

are     pruned     probably     ^_ 

less  than  any  of  the  va- 
rieties of  the  other 
groups.  Those  varie- 
ties, however,  that  tend 
to  overbear  require 
more  or  less  thinning 
out  of  the  fruiting 
wood  so  as  to  augment 
both  size  and  quality  of 


FIG.  215— WINTER   INJURY  OF   PEACH 


Left  one   and  extreme  right  healthy;   others 
the    frillt,    tO    faVOr    reg-       injured.     Dark  parts  are   injured  wood.     Light 
,         ,  .  ones  new  wood  forming. 

ular      annual      bearing 

and  to  facilitate  work,  especially  thinning  and  harvesting. 
The  Japanese  varieties  as  a  group  will  stand  fairly 
severe  pruning.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
weak  crotches  (Figs.  99,  100,  102)  because  the  Japanese 
varieties  have  unusually  brittle  wood.  In  general,  the 
method  of  pruning  employed  with  the  apricot  will  be 
found  to  work  well  with  the  Japanese  varieties  because 
the  habit  of  fruit  bearing  is  closely  similar.  When  neg- 
lected the  trees  tend  to  develop  "full"  and  "off"  years. 
Annual  heading  back  and  thinning  out  of  the  smaller 
branches  will  develop  strong  new  growths  of  wood  that 
later  serve  well  in  fruit  bearing.  Pruning  to  thin  the 
fruit,  while  of  some  service,  is  not  as  productive  of  good 
results  as  in  the  case  of  the  peach.  First  quality  plums 
demand  also  summer  thinning  of  the  fruits.  This  rule 


254 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


applies  to  Domestica  and  other  varieties  as  well  as  to  the 
Japanese  kinds. 

200.  The  mature  apricot  tree  resembles  in  habit  of 
growth  the  peach  in  some  respects  and  the  cherry  in 
others.  Hence  the  method  of  pruning  is  a  modification 
of  the  methods  employed  on  these  fruit  trees.  Since  the 
apricot  while  young  grows  vigorously,  it  may  then  be 
pruned  and  trained  like  the  peach  so  as-  to  produce  a 
sturdy  framework  and  secure  a  broad  low  head.  When 

the  growth  cairns  down 
at  three  or  four  years 
to  a  normal  gait,  it  pro- 
duces less  wood  than 
the  peach,  so  that  from 
that  time  forward  the 
pruning  may  consist 
merely  of  heading  back 
and  thinning  out  the 
stronger  growths — just 
enough  to  keep  the 
fruiting  wood  in  thrifty 
condition  and  the  tree 
well  in  hand.  Such  pruning  will  reduce  but  not  obviate 
the  necessity  of  summer  thinning. 

After  the  trees  get  old  severe  pruning  may  be  necessary 
to  develop  new  fruiting  wood  in  the  interior  of  the  tops. 
This  necessity  is  perhaps  of  even  more  frequent  occur- 
rence than  with  the  peach.  Hence  it  is  advisable  to  krcp 
close  watch  of  the  trees  from  year  to  year  so  as  to  avoid 
neglect;  for  even  though  the  apricot  will  stand  much 
neglect,  it  will  respond  nobly  to  proper  care. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  peach  the  pruning  season  in  com- 
mercial orchards  is  through  February  and  March,  it  is 
well  to  delay  the  work  until  just  before  growth  starts 
so  as  to  avoid  unnecessary  cutting  of  the  fruit  buds  that 
have  survived  the  winter.  In  the  Pacific  Coast  states 
summer  pruning  is  popular,  the  work  being  done  as  soon 


FIG.  216— WINTER  INJURIES 
Left  to  right,  injured  apple,   healthy  apple, 
injured   plum,  healthy  plum.      Dark   part,   in- 
jured; light  ring,   new  wood  forming. 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


255 


as  the  fruit  has  been  gathered.  The  result  is  a  strength- 
ened growth  of  the  laterals  that  have  already  started. 
These  laterals  produce  fruit  buds  for  the  following 
year's  crop.  Just  how  far  this  method  may  be  applicable 
to  other  parts  of  the  country  remains  to  be  seen.  So  far  as 
the  author  is  aware,  it  has  not  come  into  prominence  in 
orchard  practice  east  of  the  Rockies — but  there  are  few 


FIG.  217— POOR  GROWTH  OF  PEACH  TREE  NOT  PRUNED  AFTER  SEVERE 
WINTER  INJURY 

commercial  apricot  orchards  in  this  great  area!  In  some 
of  the  mountain  states  the  practice  has  been  followed  by 
a  good  deal  of  winterkilling,  but  this  has  been  more  or 
less  balanced  by  tardy  bloom,  the  flowers  appearing  sev- 
eral days  later  than  on  trees  not  summer  pruned  and 


256 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    1'Rl'MNG 


upon  which  the  wood  is  generally  more  fully  ripened. 
Where  late  spring  frosts  are  to  be  expected  summer 
pruning  may  thus  be  an  advantage,  since  the  blossoms 
may  appear  after  the  danger  has  passed. 

201.  The  peach  more  quickly  responds  to  pruning  than 
any  other  woody  fruit-bearing  plant,  with  the  exception 
of  the  grape.  The  pleasure  that  peach  growers  take  in 
pruning  it  accounts  largely  for  the  fact  that  peach  or- 


FIG.  218— PEACH 


:K  WITH  VARYING  DEGREES  OF   SEVERITY 


AFTER  BEING   INJURED  BY  A  SEVERE  WINTER 

chards  generally  look  better  and  are  better  than  orchard^ 
of  other  tree  fruits.  Failures  to  have  \vell-pruned  peach 
trees  are  most  often  due  to  want  of  nerve  to  cut.  There 
is  less  danger  pf  over-doing  the  pruning  than  with  any 
other  fruit  except  the  grape.  This  is  because  of  its  axil- 
lary method  of  producing  its  fruit  buds. 

Mature  peach  trees  should  make  annual  growths  of 
18  to  24  inches.  It  should,  therefore,  be  the  aim  of  the 
orchardist  to  secure  abundance  of  such  growths  by  con- 
sistent annual  pruning  as  well  as  effective  soil  manage- 


MATURE   TREES 


257 


mcnt.  The  removal  of  unnecessary  wood  and  the  effort 
to  maintain  a  well-shaded  tree  are  incidental  to  the  thin- 
ning out  and  shortening-in  of  the  annual  growths.  It  is 
customary  to  cut  out  40  to  60  per  cent  of  the  new  growths 
— the  poorer  ones,  of  course,  first — and  to  shorten  the  bal- 
ance fully  as  much.  Thus  a  total  of  70  to  80  per  cent  of 
the  young  wood  is  cut  out  annually.  The  arguments 
against  allowing*  all  the  annual  wood  to  grow  are  that  the 


FIG.  219— TREE  HEADED  BACK  MORE  SEVERELY  THATv   IT  SHOULD   BE  AND 

TOO  MANY  BRANCHES  LEFT.     IT  WILL  GIVE  A  VERY  LARGE  UPRIGHT 

DENSE   GROWTH,   LIKE   THAT  SHOWN    IN    FIG.   225. 

trees  become  too  thick,  too  wide   spreading,  too  easily 
broken  down  and  the  fruit  too  inferior. 

The  pruning  just  referred  to  is  done  preferably  just 
before  growth  starts  in  spring,  when  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  distinguish  living  buds  from  those  killed  by  frost 


258 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


during  winter.  Such  pruning  aids  in  thinning  the  fruit 
(106),  but  does  not  wholly  obviate  summer  thinning. 
Always  the  aim  should  be  to  keep  the  trees  low-headed, 
so  as  much  fruit  as  possible  may  be  gathered  without  the 
aid  of  ladders,  and  when  ladders  are  used  at  all  they 
should  be  not  more  than  6  feet  high. 

202.  Pruning  vs.  peach  bud  vigor.— W.  H.  Chandler*  experimented 
with  peach  trees  to  determine  the  effect  of  pruning  and  trimming 
upon  bud  vigor.  His  main  conclusions  follow : 

In  Missouri  nearly  every  winter  warm  weather  starts  the  buds 
into  growth  more  or  less.  Fruit  buds  on  trees  that  have  made  a 
vigorous  growth,  caused  by  reasonably 
severe  heading  back  or  by  cultivation,  are 
the  less  liable  to  winter  injury.  Heading 
back  may  be  too  severe,  however,  since 
in  any  year  the  fruit  buds  most  likely  to 
come  through  the  winter  safely  are  those 
at  the  base  of  the  whips  of  new  wood.  I  f 
the  heading  back  has  been  too  severe,  tl  e 
growth  will  be  so  dense  that  no  fruit  buds 
will  be  formed  at  the  base  of  those  whips. 
In  the  experiment  station  orchard  the 
trees  having  the  smallest  percentage  of 
buds  killed  were  those  trained  to  a 
spreading,  open  head,  and  forced  by  prun- 
ing and  cultivation  to  make  a  vigorous 
growth. 

The  fruit  on  trees  with  spreading  he-id-* 
does  not  rot  so  badly  as  that  on  trees  with 
dense  heads.     The  fruit  on  trees  making 
a  vigorous  growth,  unless  the  gro \vtli   is 
too  vigorous,  is  larger  than  that  on  trees 
making  smaller  growth.     This  is  true  ex- 
cept with  early  varieties,  where  a  tree  making  a  rather  small  wood 
growth  bears  the  better  fruit. 

Thinning  the  fruit  enables  the  tree  to  set  more  hardy  fruit  buds 
for  the  next  crop  [than  where  it  is  not  practiced].  In  the  station 
orchard  a  temperature  of  6  degrees  below  zero  one  winter  killed 
from  5  to  40  per  cent  more  buds  on  the  unthinned  side  of  a  tree 
than  on  the  thinned  side. 

In  experiments  conducted  bv  F.  A.  Waugh  in  Massachusetts, 
peach  trees  left  unpruned  for  nine  years  became  open  headed  and 
of  vase  form,  but  the  lower  parts  of  the  branches  were  bare  and 
the  fruiting  wood  sparse,  weak  and  high  up  in  the  trees.  The  trees 
were  also  much  less  vigorous  than  pruned  trees  of  the  same  variety : 


FIG.    220— PROPERLY   CUT 

BACK    PEACH 
This     five-year     tree     had 
been  severely  winter  injured. 
It  was  saved  by  radical  cut- 
ting. 


*  Missouri    Experiment   Station    Bulletin    74. 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


259 


several  died  from  winter  injury.  Trees  in  an  adjacent  row  headed 
back  moderately  two  or  three  times  were  thick  topped  with. much 
weak  sappy  growth  on  the  insides,  but  the  annual  growth  was  more 
vigorous  and  the  trees  healthier  than  in  those  not  pruned.  More 
and  stronger  fruit  branches  were  shorter,  stronger  and  more 
capable  of  bearing  a  large  crop  of  fruit.  It  is  concluded  from  these 
experiments  that  the  best  form  of  peach  tree  cannot  be  secured 
and  maintained  without  pruning. 

As  a  result  of  three  years'  special  experiments,  Waugh 
concludes  that  the  heading  back  of  peach  trees  in  early 


FIG.    221  —  UNSATISFACTORY    GROWTH     OF     PEACH     NOT    PRUNED    BACK 
SEVERELY  ENOUGH  AFTER   WINTER   INJURY 

spring  is  good  practice  and  in  all  cases  advisable.  In 
this  pruning  from  one-third  to  two-thirds  of  the  wood  of 
the  previous  year  should  be  removed,  depending  on  the 
number  of  living  buds  on  the  one-year-old  wood.  When 
from  any  cause  there  are  no  fruit  buds,  advantage  should 


260 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUXIXC. 


be  taken  to  cut  back  with  comparative  severity.  Only 
in  extraordinary  cases,  however,  should  the  cutting  ex- 
tend back  to  two  or  three-year-old  branches. 

In  treating  winter-injured  peach  trees,  Waugh  left  one  block 
unpruned,  another  pruned  in  midsummer,  a  third  cut  back  one-third 
to  three-fourths  of  the  previous  year's  growth,  and  a  fourth  headed 
back  near  the  trunk  so  only  the  stubs  of  main  branches  were  left. 
While  a  large  number  (93  per  cent)  of  the  unpruned  trees  lived, 
the  growth  made  by  the  headed-in  trees  was  much  better.  Ninety 
per  cent  lived.  The  experiment  also  seems  to  indicate  that  trees 
seriously  injured  by  freezing  should  not  be  cut  back  close  to  the 
main  trunks.  Only  52  per  cent  of  the  trees  so  treated  lived  after 


FIG.    222— PEACH    IN    FOREGROUND    SHOWS   GOOD    GROWTH 

This  picture   taken   in  June  shows   how  trees  differ.     The  tree   at   the    left  is  slow 

starting  into  growth.     Both  trees  were  cut  back  severely  after  winter  injury. 

treatment.  (Compare  statements  with  those  of  Chandler  202  and 
Whitten  203.) 

Experiments  conducted  at  the  Michigan  sub-station  indicate  that 
pruning  (heading-in)  of  peach  trees  late  in  the  fall  and  in  early 
winter  if  continued  may  result  in  serious  injury. 

Experiments  conducted*  for  years  to  determine  the  best  seasons 

*  Hawaii  Station   Report,    1913,   Pages  22-26. 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


261 


and  methods  for  peach  pruning  in  the  tropical  climate  of  the  low- 
lands in  Hawaii,  have  shown  best  results  when  practically  the  whole 
top  is  renewed  annually.  The  pruning  is  done  in  June  very  soon 
after  the  gathering  of  the  fruit.  Although  the  foliage  is  almost 
entirely  removed,  the  trees  soon  send  out  many  new  branches, 
which  grow  vigorously  until  winter,  when  they  begin  maturing 
fruit  buds.  All  suckers  not  needed  to  improve  the  shape  of  the  tree 
are  removed. 


FIG.  223— ONE  SEASON'S  GROWTH  OF   EIGHT-YEAR   PEACH  AFTER  CUTTING 
BACK  TO   MERE   BRANCH    STUBS   FOLLOWING    SEVERE   WINTER    INJURY 

203.  Peach  pruning  experiments.*— Experiments  conducted  by 
J.  C.  Whitten  to  determine  the  best  method  of  pruning  peach  trees, 
especially  those  injured  by  winter,  have  yielded  the  following  sum- 
marized results. 

1.  Under  normal  conditions,  when  peach  trees  have  passed  the 
winter  safely  and  promise  to  produce  a  crop  of  fruit,  they  should 
be  pruned  [late]  each  winter  by  cutting  back  the  main  limbs,  so  as 

*  Missouri    Station    Bulletin    55. 


262 


i'Ki.\<  in  i  i)   N<\<  IK  i.  or   i-i-i 


IVI  One  kill"   I"   fw.i  thirds  of  the  new  growth    \\liirli   ennt;iins 
Ihr    hint    Inn  I  ,      :•.    When   tli.     Mini    l.ii-l  .     I,,  i-ii    \\inirilillrd,   the 

in. mi   Imik,  111. iv   in-  (iii   ha.  k   more  severely,  thus  secunn".   more 

(  niii|i;ii  I     tin    ,    ,md    a\«.ldm>'.    |lir     |,,|  in;i||..tl     "I     I    -\  '  :  •  I  I  I  i  r.    Imili  . 

whirli  ih<   treei  have  a  tendency  to  form  if  they  .n-e  not  cut 

•'••.    ll«    amount   oi    Mining  back  must  depend  upon  the  extcn,    t<» 

vvlm  h    Ih.     IK  is    h.ivi     I"  •  n    injured 

i    It  "niv  tin-   him  htidi  have  been  killed  and  the  wood  ..t   th. 

uninjured.  M«".   "I    «  "iii|,;i,  I    |,,nu.   it    *;  >       !        .    hem   aimu;.!', 

pruned   .k.ui.i  h.ivc  their  main  limbs  shortened  so  ,T-  to  leave  only 

Inchei   "I    Ihe    new  WOOd.      If,  hoWCVCi,    tin     hnihs    ;ire   K'l""". 

.in.l    Straggling    lln-y    may    he    <  ill    h...  I,    int..    Iw..   m     evrn    liner 


r 


Fid   224—  OLD   MIXON    FREE   PEACH    WITH    SPREADING    HEAD 

Nott  how  well  thin   form   admits   light   well   down   Into   the  trt«.     Tin-.    inNiirri 
bud*   formed   at  the  hint  of  the  new  wood   wh«r»  thty   arc   hirdlcnt.     One 
when  thin  tree  hid  only  00%   of  It*  bud*  killed,  other*  of  the  name  varln 
Jtn.tr  heada  had  80  to  00%  killed. 


,.ld  u.M.d     i1..  i"ic  -.ev.ie  .uiiiiH-  is  done  ih«-  grower  -h..uld  h<- 
certain  ih.it  there  are  not  enough  h\<    i.u.h,  l<  n   i..  product    unit 

'I  he    pr;i.  h       .  I  •.     MI.  h     .in     .ihun.l.im  e     ..I     hint     hud       lli.il     it     .1     -.ni.ill 
percentage  oi    them  have  escaped   injury  there   may  still    he   enottfffl 

l<>  |.t«,«ln.  e  .1  p.,  MM-  crop  -I    iiuii 

,      \\hen    the    uinln     is    *o  RCVfrC   that    n«-l    "id\     the     hull    hu,, 
Killed,  iMlt   the   W.....I   is  hadly   diso  -I.  M  e.l.   the   llees   m..v    he   In 


FIG.  225— PEACH  TREE  WITH   VERY  DENSE  NEW  GROWTH  AFTER   HEADING 

BACK   TOO  SEVERELY  AS    IN    FIG.   219. 

The  only  buds  formed  are  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  where  they  are  easily 
killed.  A  much  smaller  number  of  buds  on  this  tree  survived  the  winter  following 
the  heading  back  than  lived  on  more  open  trees  of  the  same  variety. 


264 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OK    PRUNING 


by  cutting  them  back  severely.     The   following  is  a   summary  of 
results  of  pruning  peach  trees  subsequent  to  a  severe  freeze : 

6.  Peach  trees  which  were  not  pruned,  or  in  which  only  a  part 
of  the  new  wood  was  removed  after  the  freeze,  started  into  growth 
first  in  spring  and  for  two  weeks  appeared  to  be  in  more  vigorous 
condition  than  did  pruned  trees.  7.  This  apparent  vigor  was  only 

temporary,  however.  Some  of  the 
trees  died  a  little  later  and  none 
of  them  made  satisfactory  growth 
throughout  the  season.  They 
seemed  to  have  used  up  all  their 
energy  in  making  a  start.  At  the 
close  of  the  season  they  had  made 
but  little  new  growth,  and  this 
was  confined  mainly  to  the  tops 
of  the  branches,  the  old  limbs  and 
trunks  containing  only  dead  twigs. 
Their  annual  layer  of  new  wood 
was  very  thin  and  some  of  their 
roots  died. 

8.  Trees  of  bearing  age  cut 
back  so  as  tq  leave  only  the  trunk 
and  the  bases  of  the  main  limits 
died  in  some  cases,  and  where 
they  did  live  their  growth  was  un- 
satisfactory, many  of  the  sprout < 
starting  from  the  unreliable  seed- 
ling stock  below  ground. 

0.  Trees  of  bearing  age  cut 
back  into  two-year-old  wood  in 
the  case  of  young  trees,  and  to 
three  or  four-year-old  wood  in 
older  trees,  thus  leaving  stubs  of 
the  main  limbs  3  to  4  feet  long. 
made  the  best  growth.  They 
made  6  to  9  feet  of  new  growth 
and  entirely  renewed  their  heads 
during  the  following  season.  They 
also  developed  a  good  layer  of 
new  wood  on  their  trunks  and 
formed  a  good  crop  of  fruit  buds. 
10.  In  the  case  of  two-year  old 
trees,  those  cut  back  so  as  to  leave 

the  trunk  and  spurs  of  the  main  branches  2  or  3  inches  long  did 

best  and  made  fine  heads. 

11.  One-year-old  trees  cut  back  nearly  to  the  original   bud   and 

with  a  single  sprout  trained  up   during  the  growing  season  made 

fine  trees. 


FIG.  226 

GREENSBORO    FIVE    YEARS    OLD 
One   of  the  main   limbs,  pruned   im- 
mediately   after  harvesting   last   year's 
crop.      See    lower    right-hand    part    of 
frame    limb    in    Fig.   227. 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


265 


12.  The  principal  growth  took  place  near  the  extremities  of  the 
parts  left  after  pruning.     Trees  cut  back  into  more  than  four-year- 
old  wood  failed  to  grow  at  all  in  some  cases,  showing  that  in  very 
old  wood  the  buds  are  too  dormant  to  be  easily  started  into  growth. 
The  amount  to  cut  away  in  renewing  winter-injured  trees  requires 
good  judgment  in  choosing  between  leaving  too  much  wood  (which 
results  in  weak  growth   and  too  high  heads)    and  cutting  back  too 
far  into  old,  dormant  wood  that  will  not  start  new  limbs. 

13.  Experiments  to  determine  the  best  time  to  prune  showed  that 
trees  pruned  any  time  after  the  severe  cold  spell  up  to  the  time  the 
buds  began  to  start  in  spring  grew  equally  well. 

14.  Good  cultivation  is  of  more  than  usual  benefit  to  peach  trees 
during  the  spring  and  summer  following  severe  winter  injury. 


FIG.    227— GREENSBORO    PEACH.    FIVE    YEARS    OLD,    PRUNED    IMMEDIATELY 
AFTER    HARVESTING    FRUIT    IN    EARLY    JUNE 

20-1.  Summer  pruning  the  peach.*— It  is  the  usual  custom  to  prune 
peach  trees  while  dormant,  in  late  winter  or  early  spring.  When 
pruning  is  done  before  growth  begins  in  the  spring,  the  new  growth 
has  the  entire  season  for  its  development.  When  summer  pruning 
is  not  practiced,  the  more  rapidly  growing  upper  shoots  shade  the 
lower,  slower  growing  ones,  which  in  most  cases  die.  The  result 
is  that  year  by  year  the  fruiting  wood  gets  farther  and  farther  from 

*  Paragraph  204  has  been  condensed  from  C.  A.  Keffer's  Bulletin  (108)  of  the 
Tennessee  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


266 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


the  ground;  so  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  years,  even  when  the 
trees  are  regularly  pruned,  it  is  necessary  to  use  high  step-ladders 
to  harvest  the  crop.  Every  few  years  dehorning  becomes  advisable 
to  keep  the  trees  within  reasonable  limits. 

Moreover,  when  the  fruiting  wood  is  permitted  to  form  prin- 
cipally toward  the  outer  parts  of  the  main  limbs  the  bark  of  those 
near  the  base  of  the  tree  is  open  to  sun  scald  during  winter,  thus 
shortening  the  life  of  the  tree.  The  difficulty  of  spraying  and  har- 
vesting is  greatly  increased  when  the  trees  are  high.  For  all  which 
reasons  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  crowns  of  peach  trees  as  close 
to  the  ground  as  possible. 

In  order  to  get  a  full  crop  from  a  low-crowned  tree,  however, 
approximately  as  much  fruit-bearing  wood  is  necessary  as  in  trees 


FIG.   228— GREENSBORO,    FIVE   YEARS   OLD,    NOT   SUMMER    PRUNED 

of  the  usual  shape.  The  purpose  of  summer  pruning  is  to  enable 
the  tree  to  develop  fruiting  wood  on  the  lower  part  of  the  main  or 
skeleton  branches,  which  are  usually  bare. 

Seventy  trees,  including  early  and  late  varieties,  were  set  18  x  20 
feet.  In  the  following  spring  one-year-old  trees  were  interplanted 
for  a  peach  borer  investigation,  so  since  then  the  trees  have  stood 
9  x  10  feet.  As  the  trees  came  into  bearing  it  was  deemed  desirable 
to  ascertain  how  long  they  could  be  kept  profitable  at  this  close  dis- 


PRUNING    MATURE   TREES 


267 


tance.     Heavy  pruning  was   resorted  to,   and  last   year  the   usual 
winter  pruning  was  supplemented  by  summer  pruning. 

Previous  work  of  a  similar  nature  had  proved  that  in  seasons 
of  average  moisture  the  Greensboro  and  all  earlier  varieties  set  a 
crop  of  fruit  buds  after  harvest.  Greensboro  ripens  the  first  week 
in  June;  Red  Bird  ten  days  or  two  weeks  earlier.  These  two  va- 
rieties were  pruned  the  second  week  in  June.  The  trees  were  di- 
vided into  four  groups,  with  an  unpruned  check  row,  and  in  each 
group  the  wood  of  the  previous  year's  growth,  whether  it  had  pro- 
duced peaches  or  not,  was  pruned  back  to  varying  lengths,  from 
1  to  8  inches. 


FIG.   229— GREENSBORO,    FIVE    YEARS    OLD,    PRUNED    IN    AUGUST 

By  far  the  best  results  attended  the  close  pruning.  Where  the 
spur  was  very  short  the  new  growth  in  many  cases  sprang  from 
its  base  and,  at  most,  it  was  close  to  the  main  limb  that  supported 
it.  But  in  the  long  spurs  in  most  instances  the  new  growth  was 
near  the  extremity  of  the  spur,  thus  defeating  measurably  the  pur- 
pose of  the  pruning.  Many  spurs  did  not  send  out  new  shoots. 

In  all  cases  of  early  pruning  the  new  wood  was  well  set  with 
fruit  buds  during  the  season,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  227,  a  picture  of  a 
Greensboro  tree  photographed  when  in  full  bloom  in  April.  It  is 
difficult  by  photography  to  show  the  fruit  on  the  tree  because  leaves 
and  fruits  are  so  nearly  the  same  color  and  the  picture  is  necessarily 
greatly  reduced.  As  the  peach  blooms  in  advance  of  leafage,  the 
blossoms  show  exactly  the  location  of  the  fruiting  wood  and  trees 
in  full  bloom  are  therefore  used  in  illustrating  this  article. 


268 


JRIXCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


Comparing  Fig.  227  with  Fig.  228,  a  tree  that  was  not  summer 
pruned,  it  is  seen  that  the  result  of  summer  pruning  is  to  bring  the 
fruit  of  the  next  season  nearer  to  the  main  limbs,  and  also  that  in 
the  unpruned  tree  the  lower  part  of  the  crown  has  very  many  less 
blossoms  than  the  tree  pruned  by  the  middle  of  June.  Figure  226 
is  a  detailed  view  of  the  lower  part  of  one  of  the  main  limbs  of  the 
tree  shown  in  Fig.  227.  In  the  lower  left-hand  corner  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  and  its  separation  into  three  main  limbs  is  shown.  It  will 
be  observed  that  this  limb  (and  the  others  equally)  is  clothed  with 
blossom-covered  shoots  from  its  base  outward.  Fruit  set  on 


FIG.    230— GREENSBORO,    FIVE    YEARS    OLD,    PRUNED    IN    JULY 

every  one  of  these  shoots,  so  fully  a  fourth  of  the  entire  crop  of 
the  tree  is  produced  within  4  feet  of  the  ground.  All  the  fruit  on 
the  tree  can  be  picked  from  the  ground  by  a  man  of  average  height. 

Early  summer  pruning  permits  the  formation  of  fruit  buds  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  growing  season  for  the  next  year's  crop. 
But  late  pruning  is  harmful  to  the  succeeding  crop.  The  tree  shown 
in  Fig.  229  is  a  Greensboro  tree  pruned  in  August.  Very  few  fruit 
buds  formed  on  the  new  growth,  which  was  very  short.  A  Greens- 
boro tree,  pruned  in  July  (Fig.  230)  set  a  good  stand  of  fruit  buds 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  crown,  but  the  lower  part  is  relatively  bare. 
Red  Bird  trees  pruned  in  early  June  were  quite  as  full  of  bloom  in 
the  lower  branches  as  was  the  Greensboro  tree  shown  in  Fi.u 

The  later  varieties  respond  in  practically  the  same  manner  to 
early  and  late  summer  pruning.  Figure  231  is  a  Belle  (of  Georgia) 


PRUNING    MATURE  TREES 


269 


tree,  primed  in  early  June,  and  Fig.  232  is  a  Belle  not  summer- 
pruned.  The  late-pruned  Belle  trees  were  no  better  than  the  late- 
pruned  trees  of  the  earlier  varieties.  Champion  gave  results  so 
similar  that  it  was  not  thought  necessary  to  multiply  .photographs. 
Elberta  is  not  included  in  this  orchard,  but  in  all  probability  its 
action  would  be  the  same. 

To  prune^any  variety  of  later  ripening  season  than  Greensboro 
after  its  crop  is  harvested  would  seem  to  be  unprofitable.  Is  it 
feasible  to  prune  Carman  and  all  later  varieties  before  their  crop 
is  gathered?  What  sacrifice  of  crop  is  involved? 


FIG.    231— FIVE-YEAR   BELLE   OF    GEORGIA    PRUNED    IN    EARLY   JUNE 

Carman,  Belle  and  Champion  trees  were  pruned  as  described 
above  in  early  June,  July  and  August.  In  every  tree  there  are  shoots 
that  do  not  bear,  and  others  that  grow  so  closely  together  on  the  main 
limbs  as  to  shade  one  another  too  much  for  good  fruit  develop- 
ment. In  the  case  of  these  varieties  the  barren  shoots,  and  a  part 
of  those  placed  close  together,  were  pruned,  leaving  fruiting  wood 
the  whole  length  of  the  main  limbs.  In  this  way  all  the  trees  pro- 
duced as  full  a  crop  as  they  should.  In  all  cases  the  early-pruned 
trees  developed  fruiting  wood  in  the  lower  part  of  the  crowns,  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  231,  The  late-pruned  trees  and  the  unpruned  trees 


270 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


gave  much  less  fruiting  wood,  particularly  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
crown  (Fig.  232). 

All  peach  trees  tend  to  develop  a  stronger  'growth  toward  their 
outermost  parts,  whatever  the  pruning.  This  is  seen  in  all  the  trees 
illustrated  herein.  But  if  the  center  of  the  crown  is  kept  open, 
enough  light  will  reach  the  lower  parts  to  insure  the  development 
of  a  profitable  crop,  where  in  unpruned  trees  little  or  no  fruit  is 
produced. 

It  is  recognized  that  summer  pruning  involves  additional  ex- 
pense to  the  grower.  But  the  method  is  quickly  learned  and  cheaply 


FIG.  232— FIVE-YEAR   BELLE   OF   GEORGIA    NOT    SUMMER-PRUNED 

employed.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  cut  back  the  wood  of  the 
previous  year's  growth  before  the  middle  of  June,  and  only  in  the 
inner  part  of  the  crown ;  the  outer  branches  get  enough  light 
laterally.  Figure  233  is  a  fourteen-year-old  Greensboro  tree  that  was 
summer-pruned  after  its  crop — a  full  one — was  harvested  in  June. 
It  has  been  dehorned  twice,  the  last  time  three  years  previous.  Its 
center  has  not  been  kept  as  open  as  in  the  trees  previously  illustrated, 
hut  there  is  a  fine  setting  of  bloom  throughout  the  crown.  Fully 
one-third  of  its  crop  is  set  within  5  feet  of  the  ground,  the  total 
height  of  the  tree  being  9  feet.  Compare  this  tree  with  Fig.  234,  in 
which  the  new  wood  was  permitted  to  grow  unpruned  throughout 
the  summer.  The  practice  of  summer  pruning  for  early  varieties 
at  least,  would  seem  to  be  established. 

Summer  pruning  will  enable  the  grower  to  develop  a  full  crop 
of  fruit  in  the  lower  part  of  his  late  varieties  if  he  trains  the  trees 


PRUNING  MATURE  TREES 


271 


properly.  Let  us  suppose  a  tree,  open  at  the  center,  with  fruiting 
wood  well  distributed  along  its  main  or  skeleton  limbs  from  the 
crotch  to  their  ends.  Young  trees  in  which  three  skeleton  limbs 
radiate  from  the  trunk  in  spreading  fashion  will  produce  new  shoots 
at  close  intervals.  If  these  new  shoots  are  pruned  alternately,  be- 
fore the  middle  of  June,  one  set  being  allowed  to  grow  throughout 
the  season  and  the  other  pruned  to  a  spur,  the  following  year  the 
unpruned  shoots  will  bear  a  crop.  The  second  year  they  will  be 
reduced  to  spurs  and  the  alternate  set  will  bear.  Thus  both  late 
and  early  varieties  may  be  kept  in  full  bearing  the  entire  length  of 
their  frame  limbs.  Even  with  this  heavy  pruning  the  greatest  con- 
venience of  harvesting  and  spraying  the  low-crowned  trees  will 
warrant  whatever  increased  labor  the  plan  involves. 

When  winter  pruning  alone  is  practiced   heavy  growth   follows. 
Such  new  shoots  as   form  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  crown  reach 


FIG.    233— GREENSBORO   TREE,    SEVEN    YEARS    OLD,    NOT  SUMMER-PRUNED 

up  for  light,  and  before  midsummer  are  crowding  one  another  so 
much  as  to  overtop  completely  the  weaker  growths.  By  fall  these 
smaller  shoots  are  dead,  and  because  of  lack  of  light  very  few  fruit 
buds  have  formed  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  surviving  shoots.  Thus 
the  fruit  forms  toward  the  ends  of  the  new  wood,  where  it  is  poorly 
supported.  As  the  crop  approaches  maturity  these  long  branches 
bend  and  break  beneath  a  weight  of  fruit  that  could  have  been 
safely  carried  had  it  been  placed  near  their  bases.  Summer  pruning 
evades  this  difficulty  by  thinning  the  new  growth  and  giving  the 
parts  remaining  full  sunshine, 


272 


'KIXCII'LKS    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


Summer  pruning  is  an  insurance  against  sun  scald  on  the  frame 
limbs;  for  the  shoots  that  spring  from  the  upper  sides  of  the  main 
branches  not  only  shade  them  but  draw  into  their  supporting  tissues 
a  constant  flow  of  sap,  thus  keeping  them  m  vigorous  health. 

Because  the  peach  tends  to  form  a  densely  leafy  head, 
care  in  pruning  should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  head  fairly 
open  so  sun  and  air  may  have  free  access  to  the  center. 
This  end  may  be  attained  perhaps  most  easily  by  extend- 
ing the  diameter  of  the  head  rather  than  increasing  the 


FIG.    234— FOURTEEN-YEAR    GREENSBORO    SUMMER-PRUNED    IMMEDIATELY 
AFTER    HARVEST    LAST   YEAR 

height.  Most  growers  strive  to  have  the  frame  limbs 
form  as  nearly  an  angle  of  00  degrees  with  each  other  as 
possible  and  to  spread  the  top  so  that  the  height  will  be 
about  half  the  width  (Fig.  224).  By  proper  attention  to 
pruning,  cultivation,  feeding,  spraying  and  especially 
borer  control,  peach  trees  may  be  made  to  continue 
profitable  far  beyond  the  usually  allotted  half  score  of 
years.  The  author  has  visited  orchards  30  years  old  and 
older  that  still  bear  profitable  crops  simply  because  of 
adequate  attention. 


PRUNING   MATURE   TREES  273 

One  of  the  commonest  errors  in  peach  pruning  is  to 
get  rid  of  too  much  interior  growth.  This  may  be  either 
because  of  over-shading  by  growths  higher  up  or  by  poor 
judgment  in  cutting.  Nothing  but  careful  and  vigorous 
pruning  in  the  top  will  maintain  bearing  wood  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  trees ;  and  yet  care  must  be  exercised 
to  prevent  having  too  open  a  top.  Plenty  of  fruiting 
wood  must  be  there  also.  While  central  bearing  twigs 
usually  are  not  as  sturdy  as  exterior  ones,  yet  the  fruit 
borne  there  is  less  likely  to  be  blown  off.  It  may  also  be 
of  fully  as  good  quality  on  properly  handled  trees. 

Often  an  old  peach  orchard  may  be  rejuvenated.  Per- 
haps the  best  time  to  undertake  the  work  is  during  a  sea- 
son when  frost  has  ruined  the  crop.  The  earlier  the  wrork 
can  be  done  in  the  spring  the  better  so  that  plenty  of 
fruit  buds  may  be  formed  for  the  following  season's  crop. 
When  there  are  young  growths  low  down  on  the  limbs 
and  the  trunk,  the  top  may  be  cut  back  severely,  the  cuts 
being  preferably  close  to  points  where  good  but  smaller 
limbs  are  already  growing  well.  "Dehorning"  is  an  ex- 
aggeration of  this  cutting  back.  In  it  practically  all  the 
top  is  removed  except  a  few  feet  of  the  frame  and  second- 
ary limbs.  Figure  31  shows  a  tree  that  was  so  treated 
four  years  before  the  picture  was  taken.  It  bore  a  partial 
crop  the  second  year  after  being  dehorned  and  a  good 
crop  the  following  and  the  fourth  years. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CARE  OF  TOP-WORKED  TREES 

205.  Availability  of  top-working. * — "In  orchard    (less 
in  nursery)  practice  unsatisfactory  trees  are  top-worked, 
also  trees  of  strong  growth  are  used  as  bodies  for  poor 
straggling  growers  and  those  that  have  trunk  weakness. 
Thus  any  desired  variety  may  be  worked  on  trees  by  the 
individual  orchardist.     The  method  is  of  practically  uni- 
versal utility,  because  nearly  every  fruit  grower  is  sure 
to  have  at  least  some  trees  that  do  not  please  him,  but 
which  are  too  good  to  destroy — seedlings,  trees  untrue  to 
name,  shy  bearers,  others  in  which  graft  or  bud  has  failed 
but  a  sucker  developed,  and  so  on.     Any  desired  number 
of  varieties  may  be  worked  upon  the  same  tree,  the  num- 
ber being  restricted  only  by  the  available  branches  or 
stocks." 

206.  Top-working  finds  its  widest  application  in   new 
fruit  districts  where  the  promiscuous  variety  growing  of 
the  home  orchard  or  the  speculative  style  of  planting  is 
giving  place  to  the  commercial  planting  of  a  few  varie- 
ties specially  adapted  to  the  district.     In  other  words, 
experimental    planting    is    being    replaced    by    busiiu-s- 
planting.     When  this  period  arrives  there  may  be  thou- 
sands of  undesirable  or,  from  a  business  standpoint,  less 
desirable  varieties  in  this  district — trees  too  good  to  de- 
stroy, yet  not  profitable  enough  because  their  fruit  is  not 
in  demand,  is  too  sparsely  borne  or  for  some  other  reason. 
Moreover,  if  properly  top-worked  and  handled  they  may 
be  made  to  yield  profitable  crops  several   years  before 
nursery  trees  would  come  into  bearing.     Sometimes  top- 
worked  trees  produce  a  fairly  good  crop  four  years  from 
the  operation. 

*  Kains    Plant    Propagation,    Page    238. 

274 


CARE   OF   TOP-WORKED    TREES 


275 


As  top-working  is  based  on  processes  of  graftage, 
and  as  such  is  fully  discussed  in  the  author's  book,  Plant 
Propagation,  Greenhouse  and  Nursery  Practice,  it  need 
only  be  mentioned  here  that  ''Cleft  grafting  .  .  .  finds 
its  chief  use  in  amateur  practice  to  work  over  seedling 
and  unsatisfactory  trees  to  desired  varieties.  Everyone 
should  know  how  to 
perform  it,  because 
there  is  no  telling  when 
it  may  become  use- 
ful."* Usually  t  h  e 
whole  top  is  changed 
over  to  the  desired  va- 
riety by  grafting  or 
budding  all  of  the  prin- 
cipal limbs — preferably 
in  their  smaller 
branches  if  the  frame 
limbs  are  large — so  as 
to  maintain  or  perhaps 
improve  upon  the  origi- 
nal form  of  the  tree. 
Better  results  are  gen- 
erally secured  in  this 
way  than  by  cutting  of 
the  trunk  or  frame 
limbs.  When  this  lat- 
ter is  done,  there  is 
danger  of  ugly  and  dan- 
gerous Y  crotches.  An- 
other advantage  in  us- 
ing the  smaller  branches  (say  £4  mcn  UP  to  2  inches  for 
cleft  grafting,  and  smaller  than  ^  inch  for  most  other 
methods)  is  that  the  new  growths  from  the  cions  are  not 
so  likely  to  be  broken  by  wind,  ice  or  snow  as  when  the 


FIG.  235— NEW  GROWTH  ON  TOP-WORKED 
APPLE,  HEADED  BACK  AND  THINNED 
AFTER  ONE  SEASON'S  DEVELOPMENT. 


*  Ibid.  Page  239. 


276 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRTXIXG 


work  is  done  in  large  stubs,  which  tend  to  produce  far 
longer  and  usually  weaker  growths.  Apple  and  pear  trees 
under  five  years  may  be  changed  to  the  new  variety  in 
perhaps  two  years,  half  the  top  each  year;  but  mature 
trees  should  not  be  worked  over  so  fast — not  faster  than 
. ,  four  to  six  years,  de- 
pending on  size,  age 
and  character  of 
growth.  Mature  stone 
fruit  trees  may  be  top- 
worked,  but  though 
young  trees  may  de- 
velop good  tops,  little 
if  any  time  is  gained 
because  nursery  trees 
of  these  specie*;  come  so 
quickly  into  bearing. 

While  proper  setting 
of  the  cions  is  impor- 
tant, the  after  care  of 
the  trees  is  at  least  as 
necessary.  Unless  this 
care  is  given  even  the 
best  "take"  of  cions 
may  prove  a  more  or 
less  dismal  failure  in 
developing  a  new  top. 
Usually  the  c\ou^ 
which  "take"  develop 
rather  rank  shoots 
which,  while  looking 
strong,  yet  if  left  to 
themselves  may  be  top- 
heavy  and  therefore  weak  and  easily  blown  out  by  wind 
or  knocked  out  by  snow,  ice,  birds  or  accidents.  They 
should  be  headed  in  when,  say,  18  inches  long,  so  as  to 
make  them  branch  rather  low  down.  Sometimes  the 


FIG.    236  — ONE    SEASON'S    GROWTH    ON 

TOP-WORKED   APPLE 

New  growth  headed  back  after  second  season. 
Compare   Fig.   235. 


(.'ARE    OF    TOP-WORKED    TREES 


277 


branches  may  also  need  to  be  headed  back  somewhat. 
The  idea  should  be  to  secure  stocky  rather  than  spindling 
growth  and  also  a  strong  union  of  stock  and  cion. 

Another  highly  important  point  is  to  remove  the  water 
sprouts  and  suckers  that  almost  always  develop  on  the 
stubs  and  trunks  of  the  stock  trees.  Some  of  these 
growths,  however,  may  be  left  to  shade  the  trunks  if 
there  is  danger  of  sun 
scald.  To  make  them 
serve  this  purpose  most 
effectively,  they  should 
be  pinched  back  to 
make  them  branch  and 
thus  develop  more 
leaves.  Except  for  such 
purposes  they  should 
be  rubbed  off  as  soon 
as  they  form. 

In  the  spring  of  the 
year  following  the 
grafting  the  grafts 
should  be  pruned  in 
much  the  same  way  as 
young  trees  are  han- 
dled at  that  time.  Pref- 
erably no  growths 
should  be  left  longer 
than  18  inches,  and 
when  they  are  not  of 
satisfactory  length  they 
should  be  cut  back 

severely  (Fig.  236)  so  as  to  make  them  develop  better 
growths  thesecond season.  Should  two  or  more  of  the  buds 
on  the  original  cion  grow,  all  but  the  best-placed  twig 
should  be  cut  off,  to  prevent  crowding.  Usually  the 
lowest  bud  will  make  the  best  growth  and  should  there- 
fore be  saved.  Perhaps  some  training  may  be  necessary 


FIG.  237  —  NEW  GROWTH  AT  END  OF 
SECOND  SEASON  ON  TOP  WORKED 
APPLE  TREE.  (Shown  in  Fig.  236.) 


278  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OP   PRUNING 

to  spread,  contract,  raise  or  lower  the  top  (120d).  Since 
top-worked  trees  frequently  tend  to  contract,  it  will 
oftener  be  necessary  to  prune  so  as  to  spread  the  top.  In 
such  cases  the  graft  should  be  cut  back  to  branches 
pointing  in  the  desired  direction. 

Should  two  cions  grow  on  the  same  stub,  both  may 
be  left  the  first  season  so  as  to  heal  over  the  stub  quickly, 
but  in  the  spring  of  the  second  year  the  poorer  or  the  one 
less  favorably  placed  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  stub 
so  as  to  hasten  healing  of  this  wound.  When  the  stubs 
are  larger  than  2  inches  in  diameter,  both  cions  may  be 
allowed  to  grow  during  the  second  year,  the  removal  of 
the  inferior  one  thus  being  in  the  second  instead  of  the 
first  year  following  the  grafting.  The  case  will  usually 
be  improved  if  the  cion  to  be  removed  is  cut  back  rather 
severely  so  as  to  check  but  not  entirely  stop  its  develop- 
ment (compare  Fig.  98).  When  removed  the  wound 
should  be  made  as  small  as  possible  so  as  to  facilitate 
healing.  Never  should  both  cions  be  allowed  to  grow 
longer  than  this  because  they  will  almost  certainly  form 
a  bad  Y  crotch. 

Attention  each  year  after  the  first  should  be  the  same 
as  that  given  young  trees,  the  effort  being  to  make  well- 
formed  and  stocky  tops.  The  small  wood  may  be  al- 
lowed to  take  care  of  itself,  for  some  of  it  may  develop 
into  fruit  spurs.  A  few  may  need  to  be  clipped  or  re- 
moved, but  it  is  better  to  leave  them  for  a  few  years  to 
see  what  they  will  do.  Even  if  they  reach  diameters  of 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch,  the  wounds  left  when  they  are 
removed  will  quickly  heal  if  properly  made  (116,  119. 
122,  124). 


CHAPTER  XIII 
BUSH  FRUIT  PRUNING 

207.  The  bramble  fruits.— As  already  noted    (56,  72) 
raspberries,  blackberries  and  dewberries  usually  produce 
their  fruit  upon  shoots  of  this  year's  development  from 
buds  which  have  lived  over  winter  upon  canes  of  last 
year's  growth.     The  exceptions  are  those  varieties,  such 
as   St.   Regis   raspberry,   in   which   the   buds   instead   of 
resting  over  winter  push  out  into  growth  the  same  season 
as  the  cane  grows.    In  all  cases  the  canes  die  after  they 
have  finished  fruiting. 

Four  pruning  practices  are  based  on  this  method  of 
growth.  1.  Unnecessary  shoots  are  removed  from  the 
crown  of  each  plant  and  from  between  the  rows.  Thus 
half  a  dozen,  or  often  less,  canes  are  left  in  each  crown, 
stool  or  hill.  2.  The  tops  of  the  canes  are  pinched  when 
they  reach  the  height  favored  by  the  grower.  This  tends 
to  develop  branches  low  down  on  the  canes,  which  are 
also  made  sturdy  enough  to  stand  without  supports. 
3.  The  laterals  produced  on  the  canes  are  shortened, 
generally  in  spring  before  growth  begins,  so  as  to  develop 
finer  fruits  from  the  reduced  number  and  more  compactly 
borne  blossoms.  4.  The  canes  that  have  fruited  are  cut 
out  of  the  hills,  preferably  as  soon  as  the  fruit  has  been 
harvested,  but  usually  during  the  winter  when  time  is 
less  at  a  premium. 

208.  Pruning   and    training    red    raspberries. — In    the 
pruning  of  all  brambles  method  No.  1  is  in  general  use. 
With  the  red  raspberry  the  second  is  only  occasionally 
used  in  commercial  plantations,  the  canes  being  allowed 
to  develop  to  their  full  size  without  any  summer  atten- 
tion.     Lateral   shortening    (No'.   3,   above)    is   the   same 
as  for  the  other  brambles,  but  removal  of  the  old  canes 

279 


280  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

(No.  4)  is  generally  done  in  the  winter  (Figs.  238,  239). 
When  summer  pruning  is  done,  the  tips  of  the  young  canes 
are  pinched  when  they  reach  a  height  of  18  to  24  inches. 
An  important  objection  to  shortening  the  red  raspberry 
is  that  while  it  develops  desirable  lateral  growth  it  also 
encourages  the  development  of  undesirable  suckers  and 
often  unnecessary  canes  in  the  stools.  The  number  ac- 
tually produced  will  vary  more  or  less  with  the  variety, 
the  character  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  available  plant 
food  and  other  factors.  The  advantages  gained  by  sum- 
mer pruning  are  to  increase  the  bearing  wood,  and  to 
secure  low  canes  which  need  no  supports. 


FIG.  238— RED   RASPBERRY   CANES    BEFORE    PRUNING 
Note   the   continuous   row   as   compared   with    h'lls   in    Figs.   240,  242. 

Craig*  found  that  with  16  varieties  of  raspberries  the  plants 
whose  tips  were  pinched  back  twice  yielded  only  about  two-thirds 
as  much  as  vines  left  unpruned. 

As  the  result  of  a  five-year  test  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Stationf  F.  Cranefield  writes :  The  facts  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  pinching  the  growing  shoots  of  black  raspberries,  to  cause 
branching,  gives  rise  to  a  slightly  increased  production  of  fruit, 
while  the  Cuthbert  was  decidedly  injured  by  this  practice.  The 

*  Garden   and   Forest    10,   Pages  3-4. 
t  Annual  Reports  1899  to  1903  inclusive. 


BUSH   FRUIT  PRUNING 


281 


gain  in  the  case  of  Gregg  is  so  slight,  however,  as  to  be  more  than 
offset  by  the  cost  of  pinching  and  the  increased  labor  involved  in 
the  winter  protection  of  the  plants.  As  a  general  conclusion  drawn 
from  this  very  thorough  trial  covering  five  years,  it  may  be  stated 
that  pinching  is  not  a  profitable  practice. 

209.  Pruning  and  training  black  raspberries. — Summer 
pinching  (No.  2,  above)  is  a  very  popular  practice  among 
black  raspberry  growers,  mainly  because  this  plant  does 
not  produce  suckers.  The  work  is  done  at  frequent  in- 
tervals during  the  growing  season — whenever  the  young 


FIG.    239— RED    RASPBERRY    CANES    AFTER    PRUNING 
Same  as  Fig.  238  after  thinning  out  and  cutting  back. 

canes  reach  a  height  of  18  to  24  inches.  If  done  then, 
the  thumb  and  forefinger,  in  a  small  way,  will  do  the 
work  effectively  because  the  tops  will  be  succulent.  If 
the  canes  are  allowed  to  grow  taller  so  that  several  inches 
of  wood  must  be  cut  with  a  knife  or  a  pair  of  shears,  the 
result  will  be  far  less  satisfactory  because  the  canes  will 
not  branch  so  low  down  and  will  not  be  nearly  so  self- 
supporting.  Moreover,  there  will  be  a  smaller  number 
of  laterals,  a  smaller  quantity  of  fruit,  and  that  usually  of 
poorer  quality,  than  on  canes  pinched  at  the  proper  height 
and  time.  (Note  Cranefield's  conclusions,  208.) 

Proper  summer  pinching,  therefore,  predetermines  both 
the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  fruit  to  be  borne  the  fol- 


282  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

lowing  season.  In  fact,  it  is  the  most  important  single 
factor  in  the  growing  of  first-grade  black  cap  raspberries. 
Wires,  stakes  and  other  supports  are  rarely  used  in  com- 
mercial raspberry  plantations  because  the  canes  may  be 
made  to  support  themselves.  When  pinched  low  (18  to 
24  inches),  they  will  do  this  far  better  than  if  pinched 
high  (30  to  36  inches),  for  the  stems  are  not  only  more 
stocky,  but  the  laterals  are  also.  High  canes  frequently 
bend  over  to  the  ground  and  often  break  from  the  weight 
of  fruit.  Frequently  also  the  fruit  becomes  soiled. 

Generally,  in  commercial  plantations,  the  fruited  canes 
are  removed  in  the  winter,  at  which  time  also  the  laterals 
are  shortened  to  8  to  12  inches,  depending  somewhat  on 


FIG.    240— BRAMBLE    CANES     IN     POSITION     FOR    COVERING    WITH     EARTH 
FOR   THE   WINTER 

the  grower's  ideal,  but  more  by  the  positions  of  the  fruit 
buds  upon  them.  In  some  varieties  those  buds  are  borne 
rather  far  from  the  main  canes  ;  in  others  closer.  Nothing 
will  take  the  place  of  personal  observation  of  the  behavior 
of  the  variety  in  hand. 

210.  Pruning  and  training  blackberries. — What  has 
been  said  above  concerning  the  suckering  of  red  rasp- 
berries and  the  pinching  of  black  cap  raspberries  applies 
more  or  less  strikingly  to  the  blackberry.  But  since  this 
fruit  is  often  trained  in  other  ways  it  may  be  well  to 
condense  and  quote  what  G.  M.  Darrow*  has  to  say  and 
to  show  the  various  forms  of  training  he  illustrates.  What 
he  writes  will  apply  with  more  or  less  force  to  the  man- 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  643,   Pages  5  to  7. 


BUSH   FRUIT   PRUNING 


283 


agement  of  other  bramble  fruits,  especially  red  rasp- 
berries, which  have  the  similar  habit  of  throwing  up 
suckers. 

If  all  of  the  suckers  are  allowed  to  grow,  by  the  end 
of  the  second  year  the  field  will  be  a  dense  thicket  of 
canes,  from  which  the  berries  can  be  picked  only  with 
great  difficulty.  The  suckers  will  compete  with  the 
parent  plants  for  food,  moisture 
and  light,  and  the  whole  plan- 
tation will  be  inferior.  The 
plants  must  therefore  be  kept 
in  rows  or  hills,  and  all  suckers 
which  appear  between  the  rows 
must  be  destroyed  by  frequent 
cultivation.  Suckers  do  not  re- 
appear as  rapidly  if  pulled  as 
if  cut,  but  this  method  requires 
much  hand  labor.  If  all  are  de- 
stroyed, the  plants  will  have 
much  stronger  roots  and  canes, 
and  the  berries  will  be  larger 
and  better. 

As  soon  as  the  last  berries 
have  been  picked,  the  canes 
which  have  just  borne  fruit 
should  be  cut  out  and  burned. 
This  allows  the  young  canes 
more  room  in  which  to  develop, 
and  destroys  any  insects  or  dis- 
eases on  the  old  canes.  It  will 
rarely  be  necessary  to  leave 
them  to  support  the  -new  canes 

during  the  winter  SnOWS.      Wire 

trellises;    arp   imnallv    tr»   KP    r»rp 
3UailV    1        DC    pre- 

ferred  where  support  is  needed. 

Not   more   than   four   new   Canes 

11  1111  i 

tO      each      plant      Should      be      al- 


RED 


IM- 


FIG.   241 

RASPBERRY  CANE 
PROPERLY  PRUNED 
This  cane  was  clipped  not 
pinched  during  midsummer  when 
nearly  full  grown.  Lateral  branches 
developed  later  as  shown  near  the 
top.  The  cane  is  30  inches  lon» 
up  to  the  point  cut.  It  should 
have  been  pinched  at  18  to  24 
inches.  Such  canes  as  this  are 
often  borne  to  the  ground  by  the 
weight  of  fruit  because  of  their 
weakness  and  top-heaviness,  where- 
as short,  pinched  canes  stand  up. 
laterals,  which  winterkilled 


. 

The 


badly  because  produced  late  in  the 
season,  have  been  cut  back  to 
permit  clear  photographing. 


284 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


lowed  to  grow  in  one  season,  all  in  excess  of  this  num- 
ber should  be  cut  out  not  later  than  the  time  of  the  re- 
moval of  the  old  bearing  canes.  The  remaining  canes 
will  be  larger  and  stronger  because  of  the  thinning. 

The  systems  of  training  vary  in  accordance  with  con- 
ditions in  various  sections  of  the  country.  In  some  sec- 
tions where  the  plants  do  not  grow  large  and  where  the 
soil  does  not  wash,  the  new  canes  may  be  pinched  off 
with  the  fingers — when  they  reach  a  height  of  not  more 
than  2*/2  feet.  When  the  bushes  are  very  vigorous,  the 
height  may  be  increased  to  3  feet.  As  the  canes  do  not 
all  reach  the  height  of  2^2  feet  at  the  same  time,  the 


FIG.    242— BLACK    RASPBERRY    BEFORE    PRUNING 
The   pruning  hook  shows  the   relative   height   before   and    (Fig.   243)    after. 

plantation  must  be  gone  over  several  times  at  frequent 
intervals.  The  pinching  causes  the  canes  to  branch 
[comparatively  low]  and  to  be  better  able  to  stand  erect 
with  a  heavy  crop  of  berries. 

Even  when  this  method  of  training  is  used,  the  canes 
may  be  bent  over  and  broken  either  by  tillage  imple- 
ments or  by  the  pickers,  the  number  of  canes  and  the 
quantity  of  fruit  being  thus  materially  reduced.  Under 


BUSH   FRUIT  PRUNING  285 

such  conditions  a  wire  trellis  will  save  sufficient  fruit  to 
make  it  a  profitable  investment.  Such  a  trellis  consists  of 
posts  set  in  each  row  at  intervals  of  15  to  30  feet ;  the 
canes  are  tied  to  a  wire  stretched  along  this  line  about 
2l/2  feet  above  ground.  This  keeps  the  canes  upright 
and  facilitates  cultivation  and  picking.  (Figure  248  shows 
this  and  other  popular  forms  of  trellises.  Seealso  Fig.247.) 
Another  satisfactory  form  of  trellis  is  made  as  follows: 
Crosspieces  about  18  inches  long  are  nailed  to  the  top 
of  each  post  and  two  wires  instead  of  one  are  stretched 
from  the  ends  of  the  crosspieces.  The  blackberry  canes 


FIG.  243— BLACK   RASPBERRY   AFTER   PRUNING.      COMPARE  WITH   FIG.   242. 

are    kept   inside    these    wires,    which    support    them    on 
either  side. 

These  systems  of  training  are  adapted  to  certain  varie- 
ties and  to  those  sections  of  the  country  where  the  bushes 
do  not  grow  very  high.  When  the  canes  grow  very  long 
or  are  inclined  to  run  somewhat  like  a  grapevine,  a  much 
higher  trellis  is  used,  with  two  wires  (Figs.  247  b,  248-1), 
one  about  3  feet,  the  other  about  5  feet  from  the  ground 
the  height  depending  upon  the  vigor  of  the  plants  (Fig. 
244).  The  canes  of  the  erect  varieties  are  fastened  to 


286 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


the  wires,  while  those  of  the  trailing  varieties  are  tied 
either  horizontally  along  the  wires  or  in  fan-shape 
(Fig.  247  c). 

A  variation  of  this  trellis  (Figs.  247  d,  248-2)  is  used  in 
some  sections  where  the  trailing  varieties  are  grown.  Two 
cross-pieces  18  or  20  inches  long  are  nailed  to  each  post,  one 
near  the  top  and  the  second  about  2  feet  below.  Wires 
are  strung  along  the  ends  of  the  crosspieces.  Sometimes 
both  bearing  and  nonbearing  canes  are  trained  to  the 
same  wires,  frequently  the  nonbearing  canes  on  the  lower 

^  * 

*& 


FIG.    244— LOGANBERRY    PLANTS    WITH    FRUITING    CANES    SUPPORTED    ON 
WIRE    TRELLIS 

wires  and  the  bearing  canes  on  the  upper  wires  and  some- 
times vice  versa. 

These  systems  are  the  most  popular  ones;  they  arc 
often  varied  to  suit  particular  conditions  or  the  con- 
venience of  the  grower.  When  the  plants  are  set  in  hills 
5  or  more  feet  apart  each  way,  the  canes  may  be  pinched 
back  at  about  3  feet  to  make  a  stocky  growth.  Fre- 
quently, when  the  plants  are  set  in  hills,  a  post  is  set  by 
each  plant  and  the  canes  tied  to  it  (Fig.  248-5).  The  trail- 


BUSH   FRUIT   PRUNING  287 

ing  varieties,  with  the  exception  of  the  Mammoth,  are 
rarely  trained  to  the  hill  system. 

211.  Currants  are  sometimes  pruned  and  trained  in 
tree  and  pillar  forms,  but  these  are  too  fussy  for  business 
purposes.  The  method  adopted  for  them  is  much  the 
same  as  that  employed  to  make  the  heads  of  trees  such 
as  peach  and  cherry.  All  buds  on  the  lower  part  of  the 


FIG.    245— BLACKBERRY    CANES    BEFORE    PRUNING 

cutting1  are  removed  and  four  to  eight  frame  limbs  al- 
lowed to  develop.  These  are  shortened  to  4  to  6,  or  at 
most,  8  inches  and  two  to  four  main  laterals  allowed  to 
each  frame  limb.  After  the  framework  and  the  first 
laterals  have  thus  formed  the  head,  two  to  four  shoots 
are  allowed  to  grow  for  the  making  of  fruiting  spurs, 
being  cut  back  to  one  to  three  buds  early  in  the  spring 
after  their  formation.  From  time  to  time  wood  that  has 
fruited  twice  or  thrice  or  perhaps  oftener  is  cut  out  and 
new  growths  encouraged. 

Apart  from  the  labor  involved  in  this  method  of  train- 
ing, there  are  the  serious  objections  that  the  "trees"  are 


288 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


less  productive  than  the  bushes  and  much  more  likely  to 
be  killed  by  borers;  fpr  when  the  tree  is  so  attacked  its 
one  stem  is  destroyed,  whereas  when  a  stem  in  a  bush  be- 
comes infested  it  may  be  cut  out  and  burned  and  the  other 
stems  allowed  to  continue  to  live  and  bear  fruit. 

The  bush  form  is  the  popular  one,  both  with  people  who 
neglect  their  plants  and  those  who  grow  currants  for 
profit  (Figs.  250,  251).  No  matter  how  badly  neglected, 
some  fruit  may  be  expected.  Pruning,  combined  with  other 
rational  treatment,  will  make  the  plants  bear  fine  fruit 
abundantly.  The  flower  buds  are  borne  mainly  on  twigs 


FIG.    246— BLACKBERRY    CANES    AFTER    PRUNING 
Same  as  Fig.  245  after  thinning  out  and  cutting  back. 

of  last  year's  growth  and  on  short  annual  spurs  on  wood 
two  or  more  seasons  old.  Usually  the  finest  fruit  is  borne 
on  the  young  wood,  but  it  is  unwise  to  dispense  entirely 
with  older  wood.  The  best  practice  keeps  a  constant 
succession  of  new  canes  coming  up  to  replace  the  old  ones. 
Commercial  growers  favor  six  to  12  canes  to  the  bush, 
two  or  three  new  ones  being  allowed  to  develop  each 
year,  the  oldest  ones  being  cut  out  after  having  produced 
two  or  usually  not  more  than  three  crops. 


BUSH    FRUIT   PRUNING 


289 


Many  more  canes  are  likely  to  spring  from  the  base  of 
the  bush,  but  all  but  the  two  or  three  best  should  be  cut 
out,  preferably  after  fruiting,  at  which  time  also  the  old 
canes  may  be  cut  out  and  immediately  burned  to  get  rid 
of  any  insects  and  diseases  that  may  be  present.  Unnec- 
essary and  lusty  shoots  on  the  main  canes  may  be  cut 
back  to  one  or  two  buds  in  the  early  summer  in  which 
they  develop.  Thus  they  will  form  fruiting  spurs  which 
may  fruit  the  following  season.  Upon  these  will  be  borne 


FIG.   247— STYLES  OF   BRAMBLE   CANE  SUPPORTS 

a,  Considered  best  for  vine-producing  kinds,  b,  Used  for  extra  long  canes, 
in  this  case  12-foot  canes,  c,  Good  for  windy  places,  d,  Good  framework  for  sup- 
porting red  raspberries. 

much  of  the  best  fruit.  Beyond  such  pruning  as  just 
outlined  little  else  need  be  done,  though  thinning  out  the 
old  wood  and  the  young  growths  in  spring  may  be  nec- 
essary when  the  bushes  become  too  thick. 

212.  The  gooseberry,  if  neglected,  as  it  often  is,  be- 
comes one  of  the  most  unsatisfactory  of  fruit  plants  to 
deal  with.  Under  such  treatment  it  produces  far  too 


290 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


much  wood  and  far  too  little  and  too  small  fruit.  The 
fruit  deteriorates  in  size  and  quality  and  harvesting  becomes 
a  difficult  and  painful  operation.  To  handle  the  plants 
properly  the  amount  of  wood  must  be  vigorously  con- 
trolled or  the  fruit 
will  be  inferior. 
Just  how  this  is 
done  is  of  minor 
consequence  to 
the  actual  doing 
of  it. 

Since  fruit  is 
borne  on  wood  of 
all  ages  except  the 
present  season's 
and  the  oldest, 
wide  latitude  may 
be  allowed  for 
pruning;  yet  the 
best  fruit  is  pro- 
duced on  last 
year's  wood.  Two- 
year  and  three- 
year  wood  also 
bears  good  fruit, 
but  older  than 
this  shows  deteri- 
oration. Hence 
commercial  grow- 
ers usually  allow 
not  more  than 
three  crops  to  be 
borne  on  the  canes, 
which  are  gen- 
erally cut  out  and  burned  immediately  after  harvest.  Two 
or  three  shoots  are  allowed  to  develop  annually  from  the 
base  of  the  bush  to  replace  the  wood  cut  out,  all  weak 


FIG.  248 

POPULAR  S~YLES   OF   BLACKBERRY  TRAINING 
1,  Canes  of  trailing  type  on  two-wire  trellis.    2,  Four- 
*ire  trellis  for  trailing  vines.     3,  Upright  canes  on  two 
wires.    4,  Canes  of  upright  type  on  single  wire.    5,  Post- 
method   used   for  upright  canes. 


BUSH   FRUIT   PRUNING 


291 


or  otherwise  inferior  shoots  from  that  point  being  cut  out, 
and  lush  shoots  on  other  parts  of  the  plants  shortened  to 
two  or  three  buds,  so  the  bush  may  be  kept  well  within 
bounds  and  fruit  spurs  be  developed  from  them. 

The  principle  involved  is  to  have  an  annual  renewal 
of  bearing  wood  in  sufficient  amount  to  give  good  crops. 

In      cool      climates 

and  situations,  such 
as  partially  shaded 
gardens  and  be- 
neath grapevines 
trained  on  Munson 
and  Caywood  trel- 
lises (Figs.  271, 278) 
the  bushes*  may 
be  given  open 
heads,  but  in  warm 
situations  the  heads 
should  be  more 
dense. 

Sometimes  the 
gooseberry  is 
trained  in  tree  form 
with  six  or  eight  to 
ten  or  a  dozen 
frame  limbs,  the 
lowest  of  which 
may  be  a  foot  or  18 
inches  from  the 
ground.  These  are 
headed  back  to  6  or 
8  inches  and  al- 
lowed to  develop 
one  to  three  or  four  side  shoots,  which  in  turn  are  also 
shortened.  The  method  is  too  fussy  for  commercial  prac- 
tice in  America.  In  England,  where  the  fruit  is  to  be 
exhibited  in  the  gooseberry  contests,  the  tree  form  and 


FIG.   249 

BLACKBERRY  CANE  AND  MAIN  BRANCH 
This  cane  was  cut  in  July  or  August  at  about 
30  inches  from  the  ground.  It  sent  out  laterals 
which  winterkilled  somewhat.  Canes  so  treated 
rarely  do  as  well  as  normal  or  as  pinched  ones. 
Note  the  prominent  buds. 


292  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


FIG.    250— UNPRUNED    CURRANT    PLANTED    ONE    YEAR 


FIG.  251— ONE-YEAR   PLANTED  CURRANT,   PRUNED.     SAME  AS   FIG.   250 
Gooseberries  and  currants  are  pruned  very  much  alike. 


BUSH    FRUIT   PRUNING 


293 


the  thinning  of  the  fruits  are  two  of  the  ways  which  aid 
in  developing  the  plum-like  gooseberries  of  which  the 
American  markets  know  nothing.  So  far  as  thinning  in 
American  plantations  is  concerned,  it  is  all  done  by  re- 
moving more  or  less  wood  at  pruning  time.  It  is  im- 
portant and  it  pays,  but  it  is  not  productive  of  such  spec- 
tacular fruits  as  the  British  methods  yield. 

Some  of  the  gooseberry  "trees"  of  England  are  remark- 
able for  their  size,  age  and  productivity.     One  reported 


FIG.    252— GOOSEBERRY    BEFORE    PRUNING.      PLANTED    THREE    YEARS 

to  the  London  Horticultural  Society*  measured  36  feet 
in  circumference  and  when  46  years  old  had  a  30-year 
record  of  several  pecks  of  fruit  each  year.  It  is  doubtful 
if  such  results  could  be  even  approached  in  many  parts  of 
America,  because  the  climate  is  not  humid  enough  and 
our  people  are  too  busy  to  take  the  trouble  to  do  the  nec- 
essary pruning  and  training. 

*  Transactions  Vol.  5,   Page  490. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 

213.  Principles  of  grape  pruning. — In  addition  to 'the 
general  principles  that  apply  to  all  plants  discussed  in 
Chapter  V  are  several  that  apply  especially,  or  even  per- 
haps exclusively,  to  the  grape. 

a.  Since  the  youngest  growing  parts,  including  the 
leaves,  derive  all  their  food  from  other  parts,  they  act  as 
parasites  (Chapter  III,  90).  When  mature  they  deliver 
food  to  the  balance  of  the  plant.  Hence  whatever  de- 


FIG.  253— GOOSEBERRY  AFTER  PRUNING.  SAME  AS  FIG.  252,  BUT  PRUNED 

velops  superfluous  growth  or  impairs  mature  active  leaf 
functions,  as  in  the  case  of  insect  or  disease  attack  or 
injudicious  pruning,  proportionately  inhibits  fruit  pro- 
duction possibilities,  and  if  excessive  may  starve  the  vine. 
b.  The  tendency  for  a  vine  or  a  vine  part  to  be  fruitful 
is  in  inverse  proportion  to  vegetative  activity.  Hence, 
practices  which  augment  such  activity  tend  to  reduce 

294 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


295 


fruitfulness,  and  vice  versa.  Disregard  of  this  principle 
may  result  either  in  over-bearing  and  premature  exhaus- 
tion or  in  inferior  yields,  even  practical  sterility.  Correct 
management  invigorates  the  vine  to  the  highest  possible 
degree  without  reducing  the  crop. 

c.  Excessive  foliage  and  small  yield  usually  go  hand 
in   hand ;   and,   conversely,   excessive   fruit   and   reduced 
foliage  are  partners. 

d.  Injuring  the  tissues — bending,  twisting,  etc. — tends 


FIG.   254— VINES   GROWING    IN   VINEYARD   THE   FIRST  YEAR 

Shoots  are  tied  to  stakes  to   keep  them  off  the  ground  and  thus  protect  them   from 

whipping   by    the    wind    and    from    cultivating    tools. 

to  reduce  vegetative  vigor  and,  except  when  excessive, 
to  increase  productivity  (103). 

e.  Terminal  buds  and  shoots  farthest  from  the  main 
head  usually  develop  most  actively.     Hence,  to  prevent 
this  and  to  keep  the  vines  within  bounds,  such  buds  arid 
growths  must  be  removed  or  methods  adopted  to  check 
the  sap  flow  so  buds  and  shoots  nearer  the  head  will  de- 
velop well.     Various   methods  of  pruning  and  training 
are  faulty  because  they  disregard  this  principle.     They 
cannot  be  followed  indefinitely.     The  vertical  tying  of 
fruiting  canes  to  stakes  is  one  of  the  most  common  of 
these  faulty  methods. 

f.  The  more  nearly  vertical  a  shoot  the  more  will.be' 


296 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


its  vigor.     The   Hudson   system   typifies   this   principle 
(239). 

g.  Other  conditions  being  equal,  the  sizes  of  vines  or 
vine  parts  are  inversely  as  their  number.  Hence  the  larger 
the  number  of  shoots,  or  clusters,  or  of  berries  in  a 
cluster,  the  smaller  they  will  average ;  and  the  larger  the 
number  of  vines  to  the  acre  the  smaller  the  individual 
vines. 

214.  Pruning  units. — In  California  the  term  "pruning 
unit"  is  applied  to  the  treatment  of  single  arms,  whether 

the  method  of  training  be 
spur  or  cane  pruning.  The 
term,  though  less  used  in 
other  parts  of  the  country, 
is  just  as  applicable  un- 
der similar  circumstances. 
Vines  which  have  reached 
maturity  are  pruned  so 
that  certain  parts  are  left 
for  fruit  production,  others 
for  renewal  and  others  for 
replacing,  extension  or 
shortening  the  arms.  All 
other  wood  is  cut  off.  No 
matter  what  the  system  of 
training  or  pruning  the 
fundamental  principles  and 
the  rules  which  govern  the 
system  are  applied  to  each 
arm  of  every  vine  so  trained,  except  that  vigor  of  vine. 
arm  or  cane  may  modify  the  application  somewhat. 
Biolitti  presents  two  diagrams  (Figs.  257,  258),*  which 
illustrate  units  of  short  and  long  pruning.  His  descrip- 
tion is  slightly  condensed  as  follows : 

The  unit  in  spur  pruning  illustrated  in  Fig.  257,  represents  a  Ion.;? 
arm  about  seven  years  old.     At  the  end  of  the  arm  is  the  two-eye 

•California  Bulletin  241. 


FIG.  255  —  GRAPEVINE  SHOWING 
METHOD  OF  PRUNING  ROOTS 
READY  FOR  PLANTING. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


297 


spur  (a)  of  the  previous  year  bearing  two  canes  (b  and  c). 
Near  the  base  of  the  arm  is  a  single  water  sprout  (d)  growing 
out  of  old  wood.  Such  an  arm  would  normally  bear  other  canes, 
but  as  they  would  all  be  removed  entirely  at  pruning  they  are 
omitted  to  simplify  the  figure. 

In  pruning  one  of  the  canes  growing  out  of  the  spur  of  the 
previous  year  (a)  is  cut  back  to  form  a  new  spur  and  the  other 
removed  entirely.  In  deciding  on  which  cane  to  use  for  the  new 
spur,  we  must  choose  the  one  suitable  for  fruiting;  viz,  well  ripened, 
of  moderate  thickness  and 
with  well-formed  buds.  Of 
those  which  fulfill  this  con- 
dition, we  must  choose  that 
which  is  in  the  best  position 
to  preserve  the  form  of  the 
vine.  This,  in  most  cases, 
will  be  the  lowest  (b  in  the 
figure),  because  it  increases 
the  length  of  the  arm  the 
least.  If  the  lowest,  how- 
ever, is  weak,  broken  or 
otherwise  unsuitable,  we 
are  obliged  to  take  one 
higher  up. 

When  a  cane  arising 
from  the  base  bud  of  the 
spur  of  the  previous  year  is 
chosen  for  the  new  spur, 
the  length  of  the  arm  is 
lengthened  imperceptibly.  A 
spur  from  the  first  bud  (b) 
will  lengthen  it  usually 
a  little  over  an  inch,  one 
from  the  second  bud  (6) 
3  or  4  inches.  In  any  case, 
the  arm  finally  becomes  too 
long,  like  the  one  in  the 
figure,  so  must  be  short- 
ened or  replaced.  This  may 
be  done  by  using  a  con- 
veniently placed  water 
sprout  for  a  replacing  spur  F,G  256  -  ROTUNDIFOLIA  (MUSCADINE) 
as  at  e  in  tne  figure,  and  Above,  as  dug;  below,  pruned  for  planting, 
cutting  back  the  arm  in  the 

place  indicated  by  the  line  /.  Cutting  back  of  an  arm  should  be 
deferred  until  the  following  year  as  the  replacing  spur  will  produce 
little  or  no  fruit.  In  the  meanwhile  the  fruit  spur  from  cane  b  will 
bear  a  crop  and  the  replacing  spur  e  will  produce  fruit  wood  for  the 
following  year. 


298 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


The  cane  chosen  (b)  is  cut  at  1,  2,  or  3,  leaving  a  fruit  spur  of 
one,  two  or  three  fruit  buds  and  the  cane.  C  is  removed  entirely 
by  a  cut  at  g.  The  more  vigorous  the  variety  and  the  particular 
cane,  the  more  buds  should  be  left.  The  water  sprout  c  is  cut  back 
at  1,  leaving  a  replacing  spur  of  one  eye.  Of  course  a  replacing 
spur  is  left  only  in  case  the  arm  is  too  long  and  will  require  shorten- 
ing the  next  year.  The  unit  in  short  pruning  consists  then  of  a 
single  fruit  spur  of  one,  two  or  three  fruit  buds. 

The  unit  of  pruning  in  long  and  half  long  systems  shown  in  Fig.2.">8 
consists  of  a  fruit  cane,  a,  with  its  renewal  spur,  d.  In  the  illus- 
tration, a  represents  the  renewal  spur  of  two  years  previous.  On 
it  was  left  a  fruit  cane,  a,  which  has  produced  the  crop  of  the 
previous  season  and  a  renewal  spur,  d,  which  has  produced  fruit 
wood  for  the  present  season. 


FIG.    257  —UNIT    OF    SHORT    PRUNING 


In  pruning,  the  fruit  cane,  a,  is  removed  entirely  at  ;'.  The 
upper  cane,  g,  of  the  renewal  spur,  d,  is  used  for  a  new  fruit  cane 
and  shortened  to  about  1  for  half  long  and  to  about  2  for  long 
pruning.  The  lower  cane,  /,  is  cut  back  at  1  to  form  a  renewal 
spur,  which  will  produce  the  new  wood  for  the  next  winter 
pruning. 

This  is  the  normal  method  of  procedure,  but  various  modifications 
are  often  necessary.  If  the  cane  g  is  unsuitable  on  account  of  lack 
of  vigor,  other  canes  such  as  /.  or  even  //,  i,  near  the  base  of  the 
old  fruit  cane,  may  be  used  for  a  new  fruit  cane.  The  essential 
point  is  that  the  cane  used  for  this  purpose  shall  originate  from 
two-year-old  wood.  In  the  same  way,  any  suitably  placed  cane  may 
be  used  for  a  renewal  spur.  Water  sprouts  from  three-year,  four- 
year  or  older  wood  being  available  (r).  .The  essential  point  in 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


299 


this  case  is  that  the  renewal  spur  shall  be  below  the  fruit  cane,  that 
is,  nearer  the  trunk. 

Replacing  spurs  for  shortening  the  arms  are  occasionally  needed 
as  in  spur  pruning,  but  usually  the  same  spur  may  be  used  both  for 
renewal  and  replacing.  The  water  sprouts,  c,  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  cutting  it  at  1  or  :i,  according  to  its  vigor. 

215.  Time  to  prune  vines. — The  most  extensive  and  im- 
portant pruning  is  done  during  the  dormant  season. 
Vigor  and  fruitfulness  are  often  profoundly  influenced  by 
the  time  the  work  is  done,  so  are  the  quantity  and  the 
location  of  the  reserve  plant  food  in  the  vines.  J.  L. 
Vidal,  a  French  investigator,  has  studied  minutely  the 
nutrition  of  the  European  grapevine.*  Among  his  find- 
ings the  following  are  of  special  interest  at  this  point. 
In  summer  the  leaves  feed  the  various  other  parts  (29) 


at* 
FIG.    258 -UNIT   OF    LONG    PRUNING    OF    GRAPEVINE 

Just  before  the  leaves  normally  drop  the  canes  are  richest 
in  plant  food.  Immediately  after  the  leaves  drop  and 
during  the  following  two  to  five  weeks,  this  food  is  carried 
to  the  roots,  where  it  is  held  in  storage.  Part  of  this  as- 
cends again  gradually  during  the  dormant  period  to 
supply  the  needs  of  the  parts  above  ground ;  for  even 
though  dormant  these  parts  must  be  nurtured.  When 
spring  opens  the  ascent  of  this  food  is  often  extremely 

*  "Les  Reserves  de  la  Vigue."     Revue  de  Viticulture  I,  Pages  895  to  903. 


300 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


rapid.     It  continues  until  the  new  growth  can  elaborate 
more  food  than  is  needed  for  its  maintenance. 

Hence  if  vines  are  pruned  immediately  after  the  leaves 
drop  the  cuttings  are  in  best  possible  condition  for  prop- 
agation. A  month  later  they  will  not  be  so  good  for 
such  purposes,  but  the  largest  proportion  of  food  will  have 
been  saved  in  the  roots  to  develop  the  new  spring  growth. 
If  pruning  is  delayed  until  spring,  large  quantities  of  the 
reserve  food  will  be  lost  in  the  prunings.  Therefore, 
vines  pruned  then  will  develop  poorer  shoots,  but  a 
better  set  of  fruit. 

Vidal  also  concludes*  from  three  years'  experiments  that,  other 
conditions  being  equal,  the  time  of  pruning  modifies  only  slightly 

the  number  of 
bunches  borne. 
With  extremely 
late  pruning  the 
bunches  are  more 
vigorous  and  the 
proportion  of  im- 
perfect bunches 
and  aborted  flow- 
ers is  less.  The 
individual  ber- 
ries are  larger, 
heavier  and  more 
numerous.  The 
growth  is  more 
rapid  for  late 
pruned  vines  and 
continues  for  a 
longer  time.  The 
vegetation  is  at 
times  diminished 

FIG.   259— VINES  HEADED   BACK   FOR  VARIOUS  SYS- 
TEMS OF   PRUNING 


A,  The  spur  and  the  fan  systems;  B,  the  four-arm  re- 
newal system;  C,  the  two-arm  Kniffin,  Munson,  um- 
brella and  overhead  systems. 


and  at  times  in- 
creased by  spring 
pruning  just  as  in 
winter  pruning 
These  positive  or 
negative  variations  in  vegetation  progress  or  retrogress  in  more  or 
less  regular  order  with  the  progression  of  the  time  of  pruning.  The 
prunings  were  made  at  intervals  between  January  1  to  about  Ap-il 
1").  With  vines  pruned  after  mid-February,  the  later  the  pruning 


Compt.   Rend.  Acad.  Sc-i.   No.    17,  Page    1,192. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


301 


the  greater  the  retarding  effect  on  bud  swelling  and  the  flowering 
season. 

In  a  progress  report  on  experiments  in  pruning  grapes  at  various 
times  of  year,  L.  Ravaz*  concludes  that  pruning  after  the  terminal 
shoots  have  started  serves  as  a  partial  protection  against  spring  frosts 
and  increases  production  without  materially  affecting  the  vigor  of 
the  vine.  The  chief  value  of  this  late  pruning  appears  to  be  due 
to  the  removal  of  the  outlying  buds  which  are  the  first  to  open  in 
the  spring. 


-„-  0 


FIG.    260— PRUNED    AND    UNPRUNED    VINE    AT    VARIOUS    STAGES    OF    THE 

RENEWAL    SYSTEM 
A,  Second  year;   B,  third;  C,  fourth;  D,  unpruned  vine  in  its   fourth  year. 

He  questions  whether  the  bleeding  caused  by  pruning  after  the 
shoots  have  started  is  harmful.  (Compare  15.)  To  avoid  this, 
however,  and  still  prevent  the  vines  from  starting  too  early  in  the 
spring,  all  unnecessary  growth  may  be  removed  during  the  dormant 
period,  the  fruiting  shoots  shortened  somewhat,  and  all  eyes  re- 
moved except  the  two  nearest  the  base.  Since  the  basal  eyes  are 
affected  by  the  length  of  the  shoot  rather  than  by  the  number  of  eyes 
beyond  them,  they  will  not  start  any  earlier  in  the  spring  for  having 
the  remaining  eyes  removed.  He  found  also  that  sulphate  of  iron, 
which  has  been  suggested  as  a  dressing  to  prevent  bleeding,  has  a 
tendency  to  increase  the  sensibility  of  the  tissues  to  cold. 

*  Taille  Hative  au  Taille  Tardive,  Montpelier,  1912,  Page  15. 


302  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

The  experiments  have  been  conducted  in  a  vineyard  planted  in 
1905.  Primings  were  as  follows:  one  row,  immediately  after  vin- 
tage ;  another  at  the  time  of  full  leaf ;  during  the  dormant  period ;  at 
the  time  the  eyes  first  appeared ;  during  the  budding  period ;  and 
when  the  terminal  shoots  were  about  2  inches  long.  The  shoots  in 
all  cases  were  cut  back  to  two  eyes. 

His  conclusions  drawn  from  his  seven  years  of  experiment*  are 
that  vines  pruned  promptly  after  leaf  fall  were  the  first  to  start 
growth  the  following  spring;  vines  pruned  when  most  dormant  (late 
December  and  early  January)  started  four  days  later;  those  pruned 
when  bleeding  may  be  expected  (in  southern  France  about  Febru- 
ary 20)  resumed  growth  six  days  later;  those  pruned  when  the 
terminal  buds  began  to  swell  in  March  were  eleven  days  later,  and 
those  cut  when  the  terminal  growths  were  2  or  3  inches  long  were 
20  days  late.  Hence  growth  started  according  to  the  lateness  of 
the  pruning.  The  only  exception  was  with  vines  fall  pruned  soon 
after  harvest  while  the  leaves  were  still  green.  These  pushed  into 
growth  10  days  later  than  the  vines  pruned  immediately  after  the 
fall  leaves  dropped. 

One  practical  application  of  this  knowledge  may  be 
the  retardation  of  shoots  and  blossoms  in  early  spring 
long  enough  to  escape  late  frosts.  Experiments  in  Cali- 
fornia have  proved  the  utility  of  this;  several  vines 
pruned  about  the  middle  of  March  were  saved,  while  those 
pruned  in  late  fall  and  early  winter  were  killed  by  a  late 
April  frost.  March  pruning  in  California  may  delay 
blooming  ten  days.  Season  of  ripening  is  slightly  de- 
layed, but  when  frosts  occur  the  early- 
pruned  vines  may  bloom  early  but 
mature  their  fruit  late,  because  the  ear- 
liest shoots  may  be  destroyed  and  only 
such  flowers  and  fruit  as  are  on  tardy 
buds  escape  the  injury. 

216.  How  much  to  prune.  —  A  vig- 
orous vine  may  carry  20  to  30  canes 
each  bearing  a  dozen  to  a  score  of  buds, 
FIG.  261  a  total  °*  perhaps  250  to  300  or  more. 

UMBRELLA   TRELLIS     Probably  not  more  than   50  or  75  of 
Post  grofund.ab°ve        these   buds    will    produce    shoots,   the 

*  Taille   Hative   au   Taille  Tardive,    1912. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


303 


others  remaining  latent  (55).  If  the  vine  is  pruned  so 
as  to  leave  only  50  to  75  buds  therefore,  the  result  will 
probably  be  the  same  number  of  shoots,  though  doubt- 
less from  a  somewhat  different  set  of  buds,  because  the 
buds  near  the  bases  of  the  shoots  rather  than  those  nearer 
the  terminals  will  grow  (55).  Neither  the  quantity  nor 
the  quality  of  the  crop  nor  the  vigor  of  the  vine  or  its 
shoots  will  show  any  conspicuous  difference. 

Should  the  vine  be  pruned  more  severely,  leaving  only 
25  or  30  buds,  the  number  of  shoots  will,  of  course, .be 
smaller.  Hence  the  supply  of  stored  food  in  root,  trunk 
and  branches  and  the  supply  of  crude  sap  from  the  un- 
pruned  roots  will  be  distributed  in  larger  quantities  to  the 
shoots,  which  will  thus  grow  more  vigorously  than  they 
would  were  there  more  of  them.  This  smaller  number 
of  large  shoots  will  produce  fully  as  great  an  area  of  leaf 
surface  as  would  the  greater  number  of  smaller  shoots 
on  the  unpruned  vine,  so  the  vigor  of  the  vine  will  in  no 
way  be  impaired  by  the  reduction  in  number.  Similarly, 
a  smaller  number,  but  larger-sized  bunches  and  berries, 
will  be  produced  by  the  smaller  number  of  large  shoots; 
so  the  total  weight  of  the  crop  will  be  at  least  as  great  as 
when  the  greater  number  of  clusters  and  berries  are 
borne  on  the  smaller  but  more  numerous  shoots.  Indeed, 
experience  proves  that  size  of  both  berry  and  cluster  is 
larger  and  weight  of  crop  greater  on  pruned  than  on  un- 


^^•^^^^^^^^^^It^^^^^ 


FIG.  262— FAN  SYSTEM,  VINE  AT  VARIOUS  AGES 

A,  Unpruned  vine  in   third   year;  B,  pruned  vine   in   fourth  year;   C,  unpruned  vine 
in    fourth   year. 


304  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

pruned  vines.  This  is  because  it  is  easier  for  the  pruned 
vine  to  supply  the  sugar  and  water,  the  principal  con- 
stituents of  the  large  berries,  than  to  produce  the  stems, 
skins  and  seeds  which  make  up  the  principal  part  of  the 
small  fruit  clusters  on  the  unpruned  vines. 

There  is,  of  course,  a  limit  beyond  which  such  results 
begin  to  diminish.  This  is  due  to  one  or  both  of  two 
causes;  namely,  the  maximum  sizes  for  berries  and 
clusters  and  the  undue  development  of  vegetative  func- 
tions which  often  cause  the  blossoms  to  drop  without 
setting  fruit.  The  aim  should  be  therefore  to  leave  the 
optimum  number  of  buds  for  the  production  of  fruit.  The 
^_  number  will  vary  with 

the  age  and  individu- 
ality of  the  vine,  the  va- 
riety, the  method  of 
training  and  in  a  n  y 
other  factors.  Nothing 
will  take  the  place  of 
experience  in  this  mat- 
ter. However,  it  may 
be  said  that  with  vines 
four  to,  sav,  ten  years 

FIG.    263  — WIRE     HOOK     FOR     HOLDING  11   •      rnfntnprr:a1    v;np 

VINE    TO    TRELLIS  ""  *"•  COimncrClal    VIE 

yards,  the  number  may 
range  in  a  general  way  between  20  and  40  buds. 

Tn  general,  light  winter  pruning  increases  the  yield. 
whereas  heavy  winter  pruning  makes  for  vigor  of  vine 
and  reduction  of  yield.  Hence,  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  leave 
as  many  fruit  spurs  and  fruit  buds  on  mature  vines  of 
normal  vigor  for  the  variety  as  were  left  the  previous 
year ;  to  leave  fewer  on  weak  vines,  which  should  be 
pruned  more  severely;  and  larger  numbers  on  vim-  <>t 
unusually  great  vigor.  Attempts  to  make  weak  vines 
produce  normal  crops  tend  to  augment  weakness  and  to 
produce  inferior  fruit;  but  by  pruning  to  secure  small 
yield,  the  quality  will  be  maintained  while  the  vine  is 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


305 


being  strengthened  for  subsequent  production.  Indi- 
vidual parts  of  vines  act  in  the  same  way  as  the  whole 
vines ;  i.  e.,  pruning  of  canes  and  arms  should  be  governed 
by  the  same  principles  as  govern  the  pruning  of  one  vine 
as  compared  with  another.  One  way  to  judge  the  vigor  of 
a  cane  is  by  weight ;  heavy  and  firm  ones  are  better  than 
soft,  pithy  and  light  ones. 

217.  Herbaceous  or  summer  pruning  consists  in  the 
cutting  of  green  parts.  It  differs  in  its  effects  from  winter 
pruning  (83)  in 
being  in  general  a 
weakening  process. 
The  maximum  of 
weakening  seems  to 
result  when  the  cut- 
ting is  done  during 
midsummer  while 
the  vine  most  needs 
its  elaborated  food 
and  when  it  is  most 
active.  Insects  and 
diseases  may  pro- 
duce the  same  re- 
sults. In  the  spring 
the  effects  of  her- 
baceous pruning  are 
not  so  serious  be- 
cause the  vines  have 
a  chance  to  develop 
enough  leaf  surface 
to  equalize  the  loss.  This  is  well  shown  by  vines  in- 
jured in  the  spring  by  late  frosts ;  the  following  year  such 
vines  are  often  more  vigorous  than  before  because  lack 
of  crop  gives  them  a  chance  to  recuperate. 

Herbaceous  pruning  often  resembles  winter  pruning 
in  that  it  concentrates  growth  in  the  remaining  parts. 
This  effect  and  that  mentioned  above  are  more  or  less 


FIG.    264— POST    AND    STAKE    METHODS    OF 

GRAPE   TRAINING 

Left,  rotundifolia  (muscadine)  grapevine 
trained  to  a  post  with  crossed  wires  at  the  top. 
Right,  vine  trained  to  a  stake.  Often  no  wire  is 
used  in  stake-training  methods. 


306 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


balanced  against  each  other  in  inverse  ratio,  depending 
upon  the  method  employed  and  the  time  when  applied. 
In  spring  the  concentrating  effect  is  greatest,  the  weaken- 
ing least;  in  early  summer  the  two  may  balance;  later  the 
concentrating  may  be  inferior  to  the  weakening. 

217a.  Summer  pruning  practices. — The  principal  uses 
of  summer  pruning  are,  1,  to  develop  useful  vine  parts  by 
removing  water  sprouts,  suckers,  unnecessary  buds, 
shoots  and  tips  of  vines;  2,  to  reduce  vine  vigor  and  in- 
crease fruitfulness  by  pinching  and  removing  vine  tops; 
3,  to  enlarge  the  berries  by  topping — this  reduces  the 


FIG.    265— HEAD    PRUNING:    FAN-SHAPED    HEAD,    FRUIT    CANES    TIED    TO 
HORIZONTAL   TRELLIS 

sweetness;  4,  to  increase  shade  on  the  fruit  by  pinching 
or  topping  to  develop  laterals  and  to  make  shoots  grow 
upright;  5,  to  decrease  shade  by  defoliating.     Fruit  thin 
ning,  ringing  and  pruning  away  of  surface  and  cion  roots 
are  also  done  during  the  growing  season. 

Disbudding,  which  is  practiced  on  vines  during  the 
second  and  third  years,  consists  in  removing  the  buds  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  stem  when  they  have  developed 
shoots  an  inch  long  so  the  upper  roots  may  become 
strong.  Thinning  shoots  is  for  the  same  purpose,  but  is 
done  when  the  buds  have  developed  shoots  several  inches 
long.  Disbudding  is  superior  to  it  because  of  less  weakening 
to  the  vine.  Topping  is  the  removal  of  the  end  of  a  shoot 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


307 


when  about  a  foot  longer  than  desired.  It  is  most  prac- 
ticed when  the  disbudded  or  shoot-thinned  canes  have 
grown  excessively  long  because  of  the  concentration  of 
food  in  them.  Development  of  laterals  is  its  chief  effect. 
These  may  be  used  to  form  fruit  spurs  the  following  sea- 
son. It  is  usually  done  about  midsummer ;  sometimes  twice 
or  thrice.  Sucker  ing  is  the  removal  of  shoots  that  appear 
from  or  near  the  ground  surface.  It  is  most  necessary  with 
grafted  vines.  Water  sprouting  is  the  removal  of  sterije 
shoots  where  not  needed.  Pinching  is  the  removal  of  the 
growing  tip  with  finger  and  thumb.  It  tends  to  increase 
the  size  of  the  leaves  below.  Usually  it  is  done  when 
the  shoots  are  15  to  18  inches  long.  Thus  the  shoots 
have  ample  time  in  which  to  mature.  Defoliating  is  the  re- 


FIG.    266— DIAGRAM    OF    ORDINARY    TRELLIS 
Note  braces  A,  B,  C  and  devices  D  used  for  tightening  the  wires. 

moval  of  leaves  to  expose  the  fruit  better  to  the  sun  so  .as  to 
increase  color.  It  may  be  largely  superseded  by  an  im- 
proved form  of  the  vine. 

L.  Ravaz*  summarizes  the  results  of  investigations  in  heading 
in  grapes  by  declaring  that  if  employed  shortly  aiter  the  flowering 
season  production  is  increased,  but  at  the  expense  of  quality. 

218.  Pinching  grapevines.f— Experiments  by  G.  Riviere  to  de- 
termine the  effect  of  pinching  the  flowering  shoots  of  grapevines 
just  before  flowering  to  "no  leaves  and  to  1,  2,  3  and  4  leaves  re- 
spectively beyond  the  second  bunch  of  grapes,  snowed  upon  analysis 
more  or  less  chemical  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  must 
according  to  the  number  of  leaves  left.  The  sugar  content  de- 
creased approximately  in  proportion  to  whether  4,  3,  2,  1  or  no 
leaves  were  left  on  the  shoot  beyond  the  bunches — 145.8  gm.  where 
4  and  70  where  none.  On  the  other  hand,  the  acid  content  increased 
from  36.3  gm.  where  4  leaves  were  left  to  60.5  where  none.  With 
the  variety  studied  (Chasselas  Dore)  it  seems  advisable  where 

*  Ann  Ecole  Nat.  Agr.  A'ontpelier  N.  Ser.    11,  (1912),  No.  4,  Page  285-323  t  pi. 
t  Soc.   Nat.    Hort.    France,    1907. 


308 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUXIXG 


pinching  is  employed  to  leave  at  least  4  leaves  beyond  the  last 
bunch  of  grapes." 

Later  experiments  in  grape-shoot  pinching  by  Riviere  show 
that  the  sugar  content  increased  from  159  gm.  per  litre  of  must 
where  no  leaves  were  left  beyond  the  bunches  to  205  gm.  where 
5  leaves  were  left.  No  further  increase  was  obtained  where  6  or  7 
leaves  were  left.  Similar  results  were  found  for  the  acid  content, 
which  decreased  from  an  amount  corresponding  to  3.95  gm.  sul- 
phuric acid  per  litre  where  no  leaves  were  left  to  3.65  gm.  where 
5  leaves  were  left.  As  a  result  of  the  work  it  is  recommended  that 
in  pinching  back  the  bearing  shoots  5  leaves  should  be  left  beyond 
the  second  bunch. 

219.  Wounds,  their  effects  and  treatment. — Barring  frosts,  drouths, 
diseases,  insects  and  accidents,  properly  managed  vineyards  may 
continue  productive  perhaps  indefinitely.  The  most  frequent  proxi- 


FIG.  267— RECURVING  THE  CANES  AS  IN  THE  FAN  SYSTEM  USUALLY  TENDS 

TO    PROMOTE    FRUITFULNESS 

In  this  system  the  trunk  may  be  trained  as  a  permanent  single  stem  which 
reaches  to  the  first  wire;  or  in  regions  where  laying  down  is  necessary  the  renewal 
canes  may  be  started  from  a  short  stalk  near  the  ground.  Some  fruit  will  be  pro- 
duced on  the  short  arms  during  the  third  season.  However,  with  the  average  young 
vine  the  wood  should  be  headed  back  pretty  severely  so  as  not  to  permit  over-bearing. 

mate  cause  of  decline  is  the  cumulative  effect  of  little  injuries,  such 
as  pruning  wounds,  which  permit  the  entrance  of  disease,  decay  and 
insects  as  well  as  interfere  with  the  physiological  functions  of  the 
plant.  Hence  the  smaller  the  wounds  the  better,  especially  on  the 
main  trunk  and  the  arms.  By  proper  planning,  large  wounds  may 
be  avoided  more  or  less  completely.  Antiseptics  and  wound  dress 
ings  may  be  used  as  in  the  treatment  of  tree  fruit  wounds  (Chap- 
ter VIII). 

L.  Petri*,  an  Italian  investigator,  found  that  two  fungi  were  al- 
ways present  in  the  brown  streaks  which  follow  pruning  of  grape- 
vines ;  mainly,  Cephalosporium  and  acremonium.  He  believes  the 

•Staz.  Sper.  Agr.  Ital.  45,  No.  7,  Page  501. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  309 

gummy-resinous  formation  to  be  the  direct  result  of  wounding 
(though  there  are  degenerative  changes).  The  fungi  are  apparently 
a  secondary  feature  which,  however,  may  spread  the  injury  to  por- 
tions of  the  wood  distant  from  the  original  points  of  the  injury. 

Cuts  should  always  be  made  with  sharp  shears  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prevent  cracking  and  splitting.  This  may  be  avoided  by  hold- 
ing the  shears  so  as  not  to  bend  the  part  at  or  below  the  point  of 
cutting.  Canes  to  be  cut  for  spurs  should  never  be  cut  at  right 
angles  to  the  grain,  but  at  a  slight  angle.  To  do  this  best  the  blade 
of  the  shears  should  be  placed  against  the  vine  part  that  is  to  remain 
and  the  cut  made  upward.  On  this  subject  Bioletti  presents 
Fig.  285  and  the  following  discussion  :* 

In  spur  pruning  it  is  considered  best  to  cut  through  the  bud  above 
the  last  one  that  it  is  desired  to  have  grow,  as  at  C  in  Fig.  285.  This 
leaves  the  woody  diaphragm  intact  and  protects  the  spur  from  in- 
jury. If  the  spur  is  cut  at  Ct  a  long  piece  of  internode  is  left,  ex- 
posing the  pith.  As  this  pith  dries  and  shrinks  it  allows  water  to 
enter  and  forms  an  excellent  place  for  molds  to  grow  which  may 
destroy  the  bud  below.  It  requires  some  skill  and  practice  to  cut 
exactly  in  the  right  place,  and  if  by  mistake  the  cut  is  made  just  be- 
low the  diaphragm  the  breeding  place  for  molds  has  its  maximum 
size.  For  this  reason  most  pruners  make  the  cut  at  C2  about  half 
an  inch  above  the  last  bud.  If  the  shears  are  sharp  and  the  cut  made 
at  an  angle  of  about  45°  behind  the  bud,  no  injury  results. 

In  removing  a  piece  of  old  wood  at  the  base  of  a  spur  or  fruit 
cane  it  is  best  to  leave  a  little  projecting  stub.  Too  close  cutting 
in  this  case  is  apt  to  injure  the  spur  or  cane.  The  projecting  stub 
can  be  removed  the  following  year,  when  the  spur  has  grown  larger, 
withDut  danger  of  injury. 

220.  Vine  pruning  tools. — When  vines   are   properly 
pruned    annually    the   pruner    will    rarely    need    a    tool 
stronger  than  the  single  hand  shears  (Fig.  110),  of  which 
there   are   many  styles.     Some  pruners  prefer   French, 
others  Swiss  patterns,  but  any  shears  that  will  hold  a 
keen  edge  well,  are  of  moderate  weight  and  fit  the  hand 
well  will  do  good  work.     Only  when  arms  must  be  re- 
placed will  the  double  hand  shears  (Fig.  114)  or  the  saw 
be  needed.     Most  pruners  prefer  the  saw  to  the  double 
hand  shears  for  heavy  work.     The  double  hand  shears 
are  open  to  the  objection  that  they  split  or  otherwise  in- 
jure the  part  to  be  left.     Many  pruners  prefer  that  the 
saw  shall  have  a  curved  rather  than  a  straight  blade. 

221.  Trellis  construction.— The  most  popular  support 

*  California   Bulletin   241. 


310  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

for  grapevines,  certainly  of  American  varieties,  is  the 
trellis.  Though  there  are  several  forms,  depending  upon 
the  system  of  training,  they  all  agree  in  the  main  points 
of  construction.  Posts  of  cedar,  locust,  chestnut  or  other 
wood  durable  when  set  in  the  ground  are  spaced  at  dis- 
tances depending  upon  the  system,  the  character  of  vine 
growth,  etc.  End  posts  must  be  very  firmly  braced  to 
withstand  the  weight  of  vines  and  fruit,  especially  dur- 
ing the  strain  caused  by  heavy  winds.  Figure  266  shows 
two  ways  of  bracing,  the  most  popular  at  A  and  B. 
Number  10  or  12  wire  is  generally  used.  Because  of  ex- 
pansion and  contraction  due  to  temperature  the  wires 
should  pass  through  the  staples  loosely  and  at  each  end 
the  slack  be  wound  on  a  reel  of  some  kind.  Unless  this 
is  done  and  the  wires  partly  unwound  in  the  fall,  the  end 
posts  and  perhaps  some  others  may  be  pulled  loose  dur- 
ing winter. 

222.  Other  supports  than  trellises  and  stakes. — Tn  ama- 
teur practice  grapes  of  all  classes  are  largely  grown  upon 
arbors,  porches,  fences,  buildings,  trees,  etc.     The  first 
is  often  excellent  as  a  landscape  gardening  feature  when 
it  covers  a  walk.     Where  the  principles  of  pruning  and 
training  are  adapted  to  the  kind  of  support,  grapes  of 
good  enough   quality   for  anyone  may  be   so  produced. 
But  for  business  purposes  trellises  and  stakes  are  de- 
servedly most  popular  because  better  results  can  be  so 
produced.     The  advantages  of  the  trellis  over  the  arbor 
are :    The  trellis  is  cheaper  and  more  easily  built ;  it  will 
last  longer  and  can  be  more  easily  repaired ;  it  will  double 
the  fruit-bearing  surface  of  the  vines,  the  size  of  arbor 
and  trellis  being  the  same ;  the  vines  will  be  more  pro- 
ductive and  they  may  be  pruned,  sprayed  and  cultivated 
and  the  fruit  more  easily  harvested. 

223.  The  American  grape   (mainly  Labrusca  varieties 
and    hybrids)    must    be   pruned   both    to   prevent    over- 
bearing and  to  secure  high  quality  fruit  without  jeopard- 
izing the  vigor  of  the  vines.     If  common  sense  docs  not 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


311 


acknowledge  these  points  the  experiments  of  Keffer  in 
Tennessee*  will  prove  enlightening  (74).  Unpruned 
vines,  according  to  this  investigator,  during  the  first  sea- 
son of  neglect  yielded  more  fruit  than  did  pruned  ones, 
but  the  clusters  on  the  pruned  vines  averaged  heavier, 
and  the  load  of  grapes  on  the  neglected  vines  was  so  heavy 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  new  growth  died  so  that 
the  subsequent  crop  was  lighter  on  the  neglected  than  on 
the  pruned  vines.  Hence  vines  must  be  held  within 
bounds  in  order  to  secure  size  and  flavor  and,  in  a  series 
of  years,  quantity  also.  Proper  pruning  does  this  and 
also  economizes  land  and  facilitates  various  vineyard 
operations — spraying,  cultivating,  harvesting,  etc. 


FIG.  268— UNPRUNED  VINE  TRAINED  ACCORDING  TO  THE  FAN  SYSTEM 
A  O  is  an  arm  of  old  wood  attached  to  the  main  body  of  the  vine.  When 
pruning  was  done  in  the  spring  the  cane  A  B  was  left  as  the  fruiting  cane.  It 
produced  the  fruiting  shoots  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  and  6  that  season.  In  addition  to  leaving 
A  B,  two  other  canes  were  cut  back,  forming  the  spurs  C  and  D.  The  spur  D  did 
not  develop  a  renewal  cane,  but  C  produced  two  strong  shoots,  E  and  F. 

In  order  to  prune  intelligently,  the  operator  must  un- 
derstand the  fruit-bearing  habit  and  its  relation  to  wood 
growth.  As  already  noted  (56,  73),  the  fruit  is  borne 
near  the  bases  of  this  season's  shoots,  which  spring  from 
resting  buds  formed  last  season.  Hence  it  is  easy  to 
calculate  the  amount  of  fruit  a  vine  should  bear.  In  order 

*  Bulletin  No.  77. 


312  PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 

to  produce  the  average  yield  of  15  pounds — about  50 
good-sized  clusters — 20  or  30  buds,  or  an  equivalent  of 
spurs,  must  be  left  at  pruning  time  in  winter  or  early 
spring,  this  calculation  being  based  on  an  average  of  two 
clusters  to  each  bud  left.  Sometimes  these  buds  may  be 
on  only  one  cane,  but  generally  better  results  are  secured 
when  two  or  three  canes  are  chosen  upon  the  main  stem 
or  stems,  according  to  the  system  of  training  employed. 
Hence  proper  pruning  of  the  grape  aims  to  remove  all 
canes  and  spurs  except  those  needed  to  supply  the  de- 
sired number  of  buds  and  bunches. 

Pruning  may  be  done  at  any  time  between  the  fall  of 
the  leaves  and  a  time  two  or  more  weeks  before  the  buds 
are  expected  to  swell  in  spring.  It  is  not  considered  good 
practice  to  prune  very  near  the  time  of  bud  swelling  be- 
cause the  vines  are  very  prone  to  "bleed"  (15).  Where  the 
winters  are  severe  and  the  vines  must  be  covered  it  is 
a  good  practice  to  give  a  rough  pruning  in  the  fall  so  they 
may  be  covered  easily.  More  wood  should  be  left  in  such 
cases  than  is  actually  needed  because  there  may  be  more 
or  less  loss  due  to  covering  and  uncovering  as  well  as  to 
possible  frost  injury.  The  superfluous  wood  and  buds 
may  be  removed  when  the  vines  are  uncovered  shortly 
before  growth  starts.  While  there  is  some  basis  for  the 
advice  not  to  prune  when  the  wood  is  frozen,  it  is  K'ss 
because  of  any  physiological  reason  than  because  the 
wood  is  then  very  brittle  and  hence  subject  to  unusual 
breakage. 

That  the  system  of  training  is  far  less  important  than 
judicious  pruning  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  excellent  re- 
sults are  secured  with  a  considerable  number  of  systems. 
Nevertheless  there  is,  between  pruning  and  training,  an 
inter-relationship  that  fits  a  certain  system  better  than 
any  other  to  a  given  variety  or  environment.  Hence  the 
many  systems  and  modifications  of  systems  seen  in  the 
various  grape-growing  sections.  Pruning  and  training 
depend  largely  upon  the  fashion  of  the  locality  and  the 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  313 

judgment  of  the  operator.  Vigorous  vines,  such  as  Con- 
cord and  Niagara,  may  be  trained  in  a  greater  variety  of 
ways  than  can  the  weaker  ones  like  Delaware.  The 
former  seem  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  drooping  systems 
of  training  and  the  latter  to  the  upright  styles.  The  terms 
"drooping"  and  ''upright"  refer  to  the  positions  taken  by 
the  bearing  shoots,  not  to  those  of  the  arms  or  canes. 
These  two  general  classes  are  widely  popular,  whereas 
the  horizontal  styles  have  practically  gone  out  of  use. 
Before  discussing  systems  of  training,  however,  let  us 
develop  the  vines  through  the  preliminary  stages  to  the 
time  when  systematic  training  really  begins. 

The  young  grapevine  received  from  the  nursery  is 
sometimes  the  growth  of  one  season,  but  usually  that  of 
two  seasons.  Often,  perhaps  generally,  it  may  have  two 
or  more  canes,  each  bearing  numerous  buds.  All  of  this 
growth,  except  two  or  three  nodes  and  internodes  on  the 
strongest  cane,  should  be  cut  off,  thus  leaving  a  single 
stem  perhaps  a  foot  long  and  bearing  two  or  three  sturdy 
buds.  The  plants  so  pruned  should  be  set  at  desired  dis- 
tances apart  (8  to  10  feet)  between  both  vines  and  rows 
and  given  good  cultural  care  the  first  season.  The  shoots 
may  sprawl  on  the  ground  or  better  be  fastened  to  bean 
poles  to  prevent  injury.  A  couple  of  weeks  before  growth 
starts  the  following  spring  the  vine  must  be  cut  back 
again  to  two  or  three  buds.  From  these  only  one,  or  at 
most,  two  shoots,  depending  on  the  system  of  training 
later  to  be  adopted,  should  be  allowed  to  grow  during 
the  second  season  in  the  vineyard.  These  two  shoots 
will  form  permanent  trunks.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  the 
third  season  no  trellis  is  usually  needed.  Sometimes, 
however,  extra  strong  vines  are  trained  to  the  lowest 
wire  during  the  second  season.  The  style  of  trellis  will 
depend  upon  the  system  of  training  to  be  followed. 

As  the  illustrations  of  grape-training  systems  (Figs.  269 
to  273)  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Kentucky 
Experiment  Station,  clearness  of  description  will  be 


314 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF   PRUNING 


gained  by  using  the  condensed  text  used  in  Bulletin  92 
of  that  station  (224  to  226).    This  follows: 

224.  The  double  Kniffin  system. — The  permanent  trellis 
may  now  be  erected.  At  each  end  of  a  row  a  stout  post 
is  set  and  firmly  braced.  At  intervals  of  20  feet,  or  twice 
the  distance  of  the  vines  in  the  row,  the  intermediate 
posts  are  set,  thus  allowing  two  vines  in  the  space  be- 
tween any  two  successive  posts.  For  this  method  of 
training  the  posts  should  be  long  enough  to  stand  f>}/2 
to  6  feet  above  ground.  Two  No.  10  wires  are  stretched 
along  the  row,  the  lower  36  to  40  inches  and  the  upper 


FIG.  269— THE  KNIFFIN   SYSTEM.     BEFORE   PRUNING    GRAPEVINE 

(56  to  70  inches  above  ground.  These  wires  are  stapled  to 
the  posts,  but  not  so  tightly  as  to  prevent  the  slack  from 
being  taken  up  from  time  to  time,  preferably  at  the  ends. 
If  the  growth  of  the  second  year  is  strong  and  vigorous, 
one  of  the  two  shoots  referred  to  above  may  be  permitted 
to  grow  until  it  reaches  the  lower  wire  and  the  other  to 
the  top  wire.  Each  must  have  its  tip  pinched  off  when  it 
reaches  its  respective  wire.  This  will  usually  cause  the 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


315 


development  of  two  or  more  lateral  branches,  one  of 
which  may  be  trained  in  each  direction  upon  its  own  wire 
and  tied  loosely,  all  others  being  pinched  out.  If  this 
pinching  of  the  tip  should  not  be  done  at  the  proper  time, 
each  cane  at  the  annual  pruning  time  should  be  sharply 
bent  and  tied  to  its  respective  wire.  When  spring  growth 
begins  this  will  commonly  cause  the  pushing  out  of  a 
strong  shoot  at  the  point  where  the  bend  occurs.  This 
shoot  may  be  trained  out  upon  and  loosely  tied  to  the 
wire  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  object  in  either  case  is  to  produce  two  main  up- 
right stems,  one  stopping  at  each  wire,  each  with  a  T- 


FIG.  270— THE  KN1FFIN  SYSTEM  OF  TRAINING  THE  VINE  SHOWN   IN    FIG  271 

shaped  head  whose  branches  run  out  horizontally  upon 
the  wires.  If  the  T  head  is  complete  at  each  wire  at  the 
end  of  the  second  season,  the  horizontal  canes,  after  the 
wood  is  well  matured,  should  be  cut  back  in  most  cases 
to  not  more  than  three  or  four  buds  each.  In  later  years, 
as  the  vine  grows  larger  and  stronger,  the  horizontal 
canes  may  be  left  longer  at  each  annual  pruning. 

Upon  the  opening  of  spring  a  strong  shoot  will  com- 


316  PRINCIPLES    AND    PR.U  TICK    OK    PKrXIXC, 

monly  grow  out  from  each  bud  of  these  horizontal  canes. 
Upon  the  first  three  or  four  joints  of  these  spring  shoots 
flowers  and  fruit  are  produced.  In  this  system  these 
shoots  should  not  be  permitted  to  grow  out  horizontally 
along  the  wires.  If  they  become  attached  by  their 
tendrils  they  should  be  pulled  loose  again  and  allowed 
to  hang  directly  downward.  This  will  tend  to  equalize 
the  growth  of  the  several  shoots,  which,  under  natural 
conditions,  tend  to  develop  most  vigorously  from  the 
terminal  bud. 

The  subsequent  pruning  and  training  of  the  vine  can 
best  be  explained  by  reference  to  the  figures.  Figure  269 
represents  an  average  six-year-old  vine  as  it  appeared 
in  January  just  before  pruning.  The  cane  or  arm,  A. 
grew  two  years  before  and  was  considerably  longer  than 
now  when  the  vine  was  pruned  in  January  one  year  ago. 
This  cane  was  then  shortened  to  the  length  now  shown, 
all  its  neighboring  canes  were  removed  and  it  was  tied 
to  the  wire.  During  the  following  summer  the  seven 
strong  shoots,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  grew  from  it,  together  with 
one  or  two  weaker  shoots,  and  bore  fruit  in  that  season. 
When  pruned  in  late  winter,  the  entire  arm,  down  to  l/2 
inch  from  the  base  of  a,  together  with  the  canes  h,  c.  d, 
c,  f  and  g,  was  removed  by  one  cut  at  X,  and  the  cane,  a, 
was  shortened  to  about  ten  buds  and  tied  to  the  wire  in 
the  same  position  formerly  occupied  by  A,  as  will  be 
seen  in  Fig.  270. 

The  arm  B  also  grew  two  years  ago  and  was  shortened 
to  about  seven  buds  in  January  last  year.  From  the^e 
seven  buds  there  grew,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  figure,  six 
strong  shoots,  each  of  which,  like  the  shoots  from  arm  A, 
bore  two  to  four  clusters  of  fruit.  This  arm  B  was  also. 
like  A,  cut  off  at  X  with  all  its  canes  except  the  one 
nearest  the  base.  This  only  is  reserved  to  take  the  place 
of  B  upon  the  wire,  after  being  shortened  to  eight  or 
nine  buds.  The  same  process  was  repeated  upon  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  vine,  leaving  it,  after  the  pruning  was 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


317 


completed,  as  seen  in  Fig.  270.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
the  entire  pruning  for  a  vine  trained  upon  this  method 
can  be  done  with  from  eight  to  twelve  cuts.  As  the  vine 
grows  older  the  canes  in  the  annual  pruning  may  be  left 
a  little  longer,  the  number  of  buds  to  be  left  varying  with 
the  age,  vigor  and  variety  of  each  individual  vine  to  be 
treated. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  two  other  canes  growing  out 
upon  the  old  wood  at  the  head  have  been  shortened  to 
two  buds,  thus  making  the  so-called  spurs  as  seen  at  ss  in 
Fig.  270.  This  is  done  more 
or  less  frequently  when 
s  u  i  t  a  b  1  e  strong-growing 
canes  are  developed  close  to 
the  top  of  the  main  trunk. 
It  provides  a  new  cane  tc 
place  upon  the  wire  the  fol- 
lowing year  from  a  point  as 
close  to  the  original  T  head 
as  possible ;  otherwise  the 
horizontal  arms  will  become 
longer  each  year.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  keep  the  old  wood 
as  short  as  practicable. 

To  one  unaccustomed  to- 
this  work,  it  would  appear 
that  the  vine  as  seen  in  Fig. 
270  is  ruined  from  such  close 
pruning,  but  experience  has 
demonstrated  beyond  ques- 
tion that  it  is  only  by  such  apparently  severe  treatment 
that  the  best  and  most  profitable  crops  of  fruit  can  be 
grown. 

During  the  coming  season  a  strong  shoot  may  be  ex- 
pected from  most  of  the  30  to  35  buds  left  upon  the  hori- 
zontal canes,  and  each  shoot  may  reasonably  be  expected 
to  bear  two  to  four  good  clusters  of  grapes.  It  will  be 


FIG.    271— END    OF    MUNSON    ROW 

Note  vines  are  fastened  to  the  \vires,  not 

to    the    posts 


318 


PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


seen,  therefore,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  leave  a  large 
number  of  buds  upon  a  vine  after  pruning  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  a  good  crop  of  fruit.  The  fruit  will, 
moreover,  be  of  much  better  quality  than  that  produced 
by  an  unpruned  and  neglected  vine  (74). 

225.  The  Munson  system. — A  second  method  of  man- 
agement, which  possesses  much  merit,  is  the  Munson 
system  of  training,  so  called  from  its  originator,  the  late 


FIG.   272-  -MUNSON  SYSTEM  OF  TRAINING  VINE    UNPRUNED 

T.  V.  Munson,  the  grape  specialist  of  Texas.  In  this 
system,  as  practiced  by  the  originator,  the  trellis  is  made 
by  placing  two  light  posts  or  stakes  in  each  hole  along 
the  row,  their  tops  separated  18  to  24  inches,  like  the  two 
sides  of  the  letter  V,  and  standing  6  feet  high.  A  wire  is 
stretched  lengthwise  along  the  tops  of  these  posts  and 
a  third  wire  about  a  foot  lower  upon  cross  wires  midway 
between  them. 

In  our  own  practice  essentially  the  same  arrangement 
of  wires  is  secured  by  the  use  of  a  single  post  in  each 
hole  with  a  2-foot  piece  of  2  x  4-inch  joist  spiked  firmly 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


319 


against  the  top  like  the  letter  T,  as  shown  in  Fig.  271 
The  wires  in  this  way  are  stretched  along  the  ends  of  this 
horizontal  piece,  with  the  third  midway  between  them 
and  10  or  12  inches  lower.  In  this  system  a  single  main 
trunk  is  grown  to  the  middle  or  lower  wire,  and  one  or 
two  canes  (depending  upon  age  and  vigor)  are  left  after 
pruning  to  run  each  way  upon  this  middle  wire  and  se- 
curely tied.  The  remaining  or  outer  wires  are  used  only 
to  support  the  growing  shoots,  which,  with  but  little 
attention,  grow  out  over  them  as  seen  in  the  illustration. 
As  their  length  and  weight  increase  they  gradually 
droop  toward  the  ground,  having  in  the  meantime  secured 


FIG.    273— MUNSON    SYSTEM    OF    GRAPE    TRAINING.      VINE    PRUNED 

by  their  tendrils  a  firm  hold  upon  the  wire.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  vine  at  the  end  of  the  season's  growth  will  be 
easily  understood  from  Fig.  272. 

Pruning  vines  in  this  system  is  similar  to  that  in  the 
Kniffin  system,  except  that  only  one  main  trunk  is  used 
and  the  canes  are  attached  to  only  the  middle  or  lowest 
wire.  Thus  a  strong  and  vigorous  mature  vine  should 
have  twro  or  more  canes  left  in  each  direction  after  prun- 
ing, in  order  to  furnish  a  sufficient  number  of  buds  for 


320  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUXIXCJ 

fruiting.  The  vine  is  renewed  back  to  the  head  as  com- 
pletely as  possible  each  year.  Fig.  273. 

This  system  requires  slightly  more  material  and 
trouble  in  erecting  the  trellis,  but  the  results  secured  have 
been  unexcelled  by  those  of  any  other  system,  especially 
in  the  case  of  strong-growing  vines,  while  even  with  weak 
growers,  like  Delaware,  the  results  have  been  highly 
satisfactory. 

Among  the  advantages  of  this  method  is  the  favor- 
able position  of  the  fruit,  which  cannot  be  soiled  by  spat- 
tering of  mud  in  heavy  rains.  The  grapes  are  overhung 
by  a  leafy  canopy  which  protects  them  from  the  hot  sun, 
while  a  free  circulation  of  air  is  secured,  and  they  are 
conveniently  placed  for  spraying  and  gathering.  A  minor 
advantage,  appreciated  in  a  private  garden,  is  the  facility 
it  affords  for  passing  from  one  row  to  another  by  slightly 
stooping  and  walking  under  the  wires.  The  elevated 
position  of  the  wires  and  vines  also  greatly  adds  to  the 
ease  of  cultivating  the  entire  ground  beneath. 

226.  Kniffin  modifications  and  other  systems. — F.   F. 
Gladwin*  discusses  several  modifications  of  the  Kniffin 
system  and  other  systems  more  or  less  prominent  in  the 
east  and  in  growing  varieties  in  which  Labrusca  "blood" 
plays  an  important  part.     His  descriptions,  slightly  con- 
densed, follow  (227-237). 

227.  The  two-stem  four-cane   Kniffin  system  is  very 
similar  to  the  one  described  above,  the  only  difference 
being    that    two    permanent    trunks    are     brought    up 
from  the  ground,  one  to  the  -height  of  the  lower  wire, 
where  two  canes  are  developed  from  spurs  on  one  stem, 
and  tied  to  the  wire  as  before ;  the  other  stem  is  carried 
to  the  top  wire  and  two  canes  are  developed  from   it. 
Some  vineyards  tie  the  two  stems  together  to  make  them 
stiffen     In  using  this  method,  the  canes  from  each  stem 
may  have  the  same  number  of  buds,  each  stern  being  con- 
vidcred  as  a  distinct  vine. 

*  New  York  Agricultural   Experiment  Station,   Circular   16. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


321 


228.  The  Y-stem  Kniffin  system  differs  from  the  above 
in  that  instead  of  the  two  stems  being  brought  up  from 
the  ground,  one  is  taken  from  the  other  at  a  distance  a 
little  below  the  lower  wire,  carried  to  the  top  wire  and 
there  tied.     The  number  of  canes  and  the   subsequent 
treatment  are  the  same  as  in  the  others  so  far  described. 

229.  The  umbrella  Kniffin  system  (Fig.  274).— The  chief 
differences  between  this  and  the  true  Kniffin  system  are 
the  use  of  two  instead  of  four  canes,  and  the  somewhat 
changed  position.    Two  canes  of  eight  to  twenty  buds  are 
developed  from  spurs  on  the  trunk  at  the  top  wire.  These 
are     tied     to 

right  and  left 
along  this 
wire,  then 
bent  down  to 
the  lower  wire 
and  secured. 
The  canes  are 
renewed 
yearly  from 
spurs. 

230.  The  one-wire  Kniffin  system  or  low  Kniffin  system 
is  a  modification  of  the  umbrella,  but  differs  in  that  the 
trellis  has  only  one  wire  three  to  four  feet   above  the 
ground.    The  single  stem  extends  up  to  the  wire,  where 
two  canes  of  ten  to  twelve  buds  extend  to  right  and  left. 
The  renewal  each  year,  like  all  the  others  so  far  discussed, 
is  from  spurs.     High  quality  of  fruit  and  cheapness  of 
trellis  commend  this  system. 

Other  modifications  of  the  drooping  type  of  training 
for  one  reason  or  another  have  been  dropped  in  com- 
mercial vineyards.  The  more  common  are  the  six  or 
eight-cane  Kniffin  in  which  three  and  four  wires  are  re- 
quired respectively,  making  an  expensive  trellis  nec- 
essarv. 


FIG.     274— PRUNED     AND     UNPRUNED     VINE,     "UM- 
BRELLA"   KNIFFIN    SYSTEM 


FIG.  275— VARIOUS  METHODS  OF  VINE  PRUNING  POPULAR  IN  NEW  YORK 
/,  High  renewal  system  at  end  of  season's  growth;  la,  vine  trimmed  and  tied 
following  spring;  2,  Keuka  Lake  system,  ten-year  vine,  pruned,  not  tied;  2  a,  stripped 
for  tying;  2  b,  tied;  3,  horizontal  arm  spur  system,  end  of  season's  growth; 
3  a,  after  trimming. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  323 

231.  The    upright    type    of    training    carries    two    or 
more  canes  or  arms  along  a  horizontal  wire  or  obliquely 
across  the  wires.     The  two  methods  of  renewing  in  this 
type  naturally  divide  into  two  groups,  namely  "high  re- 
newal," or  "cane  renewal,"  and  "spur  renewal." 

232.  The  high  renewal  system  is  popular  in  many  grape- 
growing  sections,  there  being  much  to  commend  it.    The 
trellis  is  made  with  two,  three  or  more  wires,  usually 
three.     The  lower  wire  is  placed  18  to  30  inches  above 
ground,  while  the  second  and  third  are  from  18  to  20 
inches  apart,  respectively.     The  main  trunk  or  stem  of 
the  vine  is  carried  up  to  or  just  below  the  first  wire,  and 
two  canes,  each  bearing  from  6  to  10  buds,  are  taken  off, 
preferably  a  little  below  the  level  of  the  wire.    One  is  tied 
to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left.    The  bearing  shoots 
that  grow  from  the  buds  on  these  canes  are  tied  to  the 
second  wire  when  they  have  reached  a  sufficient  length 
and  to  the  third  as  soon  as  growth  will  permit.     When 
they  reach  above  the  upper  wire,  they  may  be  pinched 
back  or  cut  off. 

The  beginning  of  the  next  year  should  see  the  vine 
again  cut  back  to  two  canes  that  have  grown  from  spurs 
or  canes  of  the  previous  year,  this  cutting  being  as  close 
to  the  head  of  the  vine  as  possible.  Near  the  base  of  each 
of  these  canes,  but  upon  older  wood  at  the  head  of  the 
stem,  short  spurs  carrying  two  or  three  buds  are  main- 
tained. From  these  spurs  shoots  develop  and  in  turn  are 
used  to  furnish  the  fruiting  canes  of  the  following  year. 
Thus,  the  spurs  are  the  means  of  renewing  the  fruiting 
wood.  From  the  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount 
of  old  wood  retained  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  while  the 
labor  of  tying  is  greatly  increased. 

233.  The  Keuka  system  (Fig.  275-2)  practiced  in  the 
Keuka  Lake,  New  York,  district,  appears  as  a  modification 
of  the  high  renewal,  but  as  there  are  some  differences  a  de- 
scription is  warranted.  The  first  year  after  setting,  the  vines 
are  allowed  to  grow  at  random  on  the  ground.     At  the 


324  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

beginning  of  the  second  year  they  are  pruned  back  to 
two  buds.  If  the  vine  is  a  strong  grower,  it  is  tied  this 
season  to  the  lower  wire  of  the  trellis,  which  is  from  18 
to  20  inches  above  ground.  The  beginning  of  the  third 
year  finds  the  vines  cut  back  to  a  stem  or  trunk  10  to  20 
inches  high,  tied  to  the  lower  wire.  The  fourth  year  the 
vine  consists  of  the  short  stem  and  two  or  three  canes, 
each  of  5  to  8  buds,  laid  along  the  lower  wire  and  tied. 
The  shoots  from  these  are  carried  perpendicularly  to  the 
second  and  third  wires,  which  are  about  20  inches  apart, 
as  fast  as  growth  will  permit. 

The  following  year  all  the  wood  is  cut  away  except  two 
or  three  canes  that  have  grown  from  the  buds  nearest  the 
head  of  the  trunk.  These  canes  have  five  to  eight  buds. 
The  number  retained  after  each  pruning  depends  upon 
the  variety  and  the  vigor  of  the  vine.  If  two  canes  are  left 
they  are  tied  to  right  and  left  along  the  lower  wire ;  if 
three,  the  third  is  carried  to  the  second  wire  and  tied. 

As  there  is  a  tendency  for  long  spurs  to  result  from  the 
repeated  renewals  secured  in  this  manner,  frequently 
buds  from  the  head  of  the  stem  are  allowed  to  develop 
and  fruiting  wood  secured  from  them.  Thus  the  fruiting 
wood  arises  from  near  the  head  of  the  trunk,  and  as  this 
is  usually  short  almost  the  entire  vine  is  renewed  an- 
nually. When  the  trunk  approaches  the  end  of  its  use- 
fulness a  shoot  is  allowed  to  grow  from  the  ground  to 
develop  into  a  new  trunk,  the  old  one  being  cut  away. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  of  training  are 
the  low  head,  the  reduction  of  the  old  wood  to  a  minimum 
and  the  case  of  getting  a  complete  renewal. 

234.  The  spur  renewal  or  horizontal  arm  spur  system. 
(Fig.  276.)  The  trellis  for  this  system  is  practically  the  same 
as  for  the  high  renewal.  Two  canes  are  placed  right  and 
left  of  the  trunk,  which  has  been  brought  to  the  height  of 
the  lower  wire  or  just  below.  The  number  of  buds  left 
on  each  cane  will  depend  upon  the  vigor  of  the  vine  and 
the  availability  of  the  space  between  the  adjoining  vines. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


325 


These  canes  are  to  become  permanent  arms,  doing  service 
for  several  years.  The  shoots  that  develop  from  buds  on 
these  canes  the  present  year  are  cut  back  to  two  buds 
in  fall  or  winter.  Two  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  from 
each  of  these  spurs  and  tied  to  the  upper  wires. 

In  the  fall  the  cane  developed  from  the  upper  bud  of 
the  spur  is  cut  entirely  away,  and  the  other  cane  cut  to 
two  buds  as  before.  Then  at  the  beginning  of  the  next 
season  there  are,  as  in  the  previous  year,  two  shoots 

springing  from 
a  spur  on  a  per- 
manent arm. 
The  spurs  will 
lengthen  fast 
and  become 
crooked,  hence 
it  is  the  best 
practice  to  cut 
them  away  en- 
tirely every -few 
years  and  grow 
others  from 
shoots  that 
arise  from  the 
arms.  The  spurs  may  be  distributed  from  5  to  20  inches 
apart  on  the  arms. 

235.  The  spur  renewal  or  Chautauqua  system  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  horizontal  arm  spur  system  just  described. 
Permanent  arms  are  used  to  support  the  canes,  which 
are  tied  yearly  to  a  two  or  three-wire  trellis.  These  canes 
may  be  tied  obliquely  or  perpendicularly.  If  two  wires 
are  used,  they  are  usually  34  inches  apart,  if  three,  about 
20  inches  apart.  The  canes  for  tying  up  the  following 
year  either  develop  directly  from  the  old  wood  of  the 
arms,  from  spurs  on  the  arms,  or  from  the  base  buds 
of  the  past  season's  canes.  This  system  has  a  strong 
hold  upon  the  vineyardists  of  Chautauqua  County,  New 


FIG.  276— VINE  IN 
ACCORDING  TO 
NEWAL  SYSTEM. 


ITS    FOURTH    YEAR.      PRUNED 
HORIZONTAL-ARM     SPUR      RE- 


326 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


York,  as  the  principal  grape,  the  Concord,  adapts  itself 
fairly  well  to  it.  The  old  arms  should  be  renewed  at 
frequent  intervals  in  order  to  use  it  to  the  best  advantage, 
as  in  time  they  become  crooked,  gnarled  and  the  extremi- 
ties often  a  great  distance  from  the  head  of  the  vine. 

236.  The  fan  system,  while  still  used  in  certain  localities, 
is  not  nearly  so  popular  as  formerly.  Here  the  re.iewals 
are  made  yearly  from  spurs  near  the  ground,  retain- 
ing very  little  old  wood.  One  serious  objection  to  the 
system  is  the  tendency  of  the  spurs  to  be  lengthened, 
becoming  crooked  and  reaching  in  some  instances  to 
midway  between  the  first  and  second  wires.  The  shoots 
are  tied  to  the  wires  in  the  direction  they  naturally  as- 
sume, vertically,  horizontally  or  obliquely  across  the 
wire.  In  regions  where  grapes  are  grown  for  home  use 


FIG.    277— HUDSON    HORIZONTAL    SYSTEM.      VINE    OF    VARIOUS    AGES 
A,   pruned   vine   in   third  year;   B,  pruned   vine   in    fourth   year;    C,    unpruned   vine 

in  fourth  year. 

and  the  climate  necessitates  winter  protection,  this  sys- 
tem is  used  to  advantage. 

237.  The  horizontal  type  is  little  used  at  present,  as 
the  cost  of  the  trellis  and  the  labor  of  tying  render  it 
prohibitive.  One  cane  arising  from  a  trunk  1  to  2  feet 
high  is  left  after  each  pruning.  This  is  carried  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  top  wire  and  the  shoots  arising  therefrom 
are  tied  to  slats  or  wires  extending  vertically  from  the 
lower  to  the  upper  wire  of  the  trellis.  The  one  advantage 
of  the  system  is  the  ease  of  control  for  varieties  that  are 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


327 


likely  to  overbear  or  are  already  weakened  and  require 
careful  nursing  to  bring  them  back. 

238.  The  horizontal-arm  spur  system  (Fig.  275)  has  a 
permanent  arm  on  each  side  of  the  vine  head  at  the  lower 
wire  to  which  each  is  tied.  Annually  each  cane  produced 
from  these  arms  is  cut  back  to  a  spur  with  two  well- 
formed  buds,  the  number  of  spurs  depending  upon  the 
variety,  the  age  of  the  vine,  etc.  The  bearing  shoots  are 
tied  to  the  upper  wire.  When  spurs  become  weak  or 
gnarly,  they  are  replaced  by  new  shoots  made  to  start 
from  a  node  on  the  horizontal  arm.  When  an  arm  be- 


FIG.   278--CAYWOOD   SYSTEM    OF   GRAPE    TRAINING 
A)  pruned  vine;  B,  one  unpruned.     Compare  with  Munson  system  Figs.  271  to  273. 

gins  to  fail  a  new  one  is  developed  from  the  head.  Prun- 
ing and  training  are  otherwise  the  same  as  in  the  upright 
or  high  renewal  system.  While  this  system  produces 
more  fruit  with  certain  varieties,  it  is  open  to  the  objec- 
tions that  pruning  is  more  costly  and  tedious,  and  more 
old  wood  is  left  than  is  usually  considered  desirable. 
239.  The  Hudson  horizontal  system  (Fig.277), popular 


318 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRA( TICK    OF    PRUNING 


ibi  the  Hudson  Valley,  employs  two  wires,  a  stout  stake 
which  reaches  above  the  top  wire,  and  is  driven  in  the 
ground  behind  each  vine,  and  four  vertical  slats  to  each 
vl  ne  fastened  a  foot  or  so  apart  to  the  wires,  but  not  reach- 
ing" the  ground.  Some  growers  use  narrow  woven  wire 
fencing  of  large  mesh.  The  vine  trunk  is  about  a  foot  high. 
One  cane  and  a  spur  are  left  at  pruning  time,  the  former 
to  renew  the  bearing  part.  The  new  shoot  from  the  spur 
i-i  tied  to  the  stake.  It  is  cut  long  enough  at  pruning  time 


FIG.  279 
PJRRALES  SYSTEM  OF  TRAINING  VINES.     NOTE   ARRANGEMENT  OF  WIRES 

t'O  reach  the  top  of  the  stake,  to  which,  or  to  the  wires, 
or  both,  it  may  be  tied.  Each  cane  is  counted  upon  to 
bear  a  dozen  shoots,  six  on  each  side.  These  are  trained 
horizontally  and  fastened  to  the  slats.  Summer  pruning 
is  done  when  the  shoots  threaten  to  become  too  long. 
Growers  claim  that  this  system  favors  uniform  distribu- 
tion of  the  bearing  wood  and  that  the  fruit  is  both  well 
supported  and  shaded. 

240.  The  overhead  Caywood  system  (Fig.  278)  has  no 
•.dvantagcs  over  the  Munson  system,  of  which  it  is  appar- 
ently a  modification.  In  it  the  three  horizontal  wires. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


329 


stretched  at  equal  height,  are  6  feet  above  ground.  The 
center  wires  are  stapled  to  the  posts,  the  other  two  to  3-foot 
wooden  crosspieces.  In  pruning,  the  vines  are  cut  back  to 
five  spurs  and  five  canes,  the  latter  fastened  to  the  wires 
three  to  right  of  the  head  and  two  to  the  left  one  year,  the 
division  being  reversed  the  next  year.  Except  when  cur- 
rants, gooseberries  or  plants  of  similar  growth  and  habit 
are  grown  beneath  the  trellises  (a  popular  method  in  the 
Hudson  Valley),  this  system  seems  to  have  little  to  com- 
mend it  above  the  Mun- 
son  system  in  its  modern 
form  (Figs.  271  to  273). 

241.  The    Parrales    or 
overhead    trellis    used    in 
training  certain  Almerian 
varieties    is    virtually 
identical    with    the    style 
used     in     growing     mus- 
cadines in  America  (243). 
From  the  head   10  or  15 
canes    each    1    to    6    feet 
long,    depending    on    the 
vigor  of  the  vine,  are  ex- 
tended   in   various    direc- 
tions.   Annually  these  canes  are  renewed  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  the   main  trunk.     Spurs  are  left  each  year  to 
provide  for  this  renewal. 

242.  The  overhead  arbor  or  multiple  cross  wire  system 
(Fig.  280)  is  popularly  employed  in  growing  the  muscadine 
varieties  (243),  which  are  usually  set  20x20,  10x20  or  15x15 
feet  apart.  The  posts,  one  to  each  vine,  are  very  stout  and 
long  enough  to  extend  7  feet  above  ground.    At  the  ends 
of  the  vine  rows  on  each  side  of  the  plantation,  well- 
braced  posts  are  set.    From  them  No.  10  galvanized  wires 
are  passed  over  the  tops  of  the  vine  posts  to  which  they 
are  stapled.     Other  wires  of  smaller  size   (No.  14)   and 
2  feet  apart  run  parallel  with  each  set  of  main  wires,  thus 


FIG.  280  — MUSCADINE  (ROTUNDI- 
FOLIA)  GRAPEVINE,  SHOWING  ITS 
SHALLOW  SPREADING  ROOT  SYS- 
TEM AND  A  POPULAR  METHOD  OF 
TRAINING  THE  TOP. 


330  PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 

forming  squares.  Generally  only  one  trunk  is  grown 
beside  and  to  the  top  of  each  post,  to  which  it  may  be 
fastened  at  various  points.  At  the  top  it  is  pinched  to 
develop  side  shoots  for  covering  the  arbor.  The  shoots 
are  trained  out  in  various  directions  so  as  to  distribute 
them  evenly  over  the  wires. 

243.  The  muscadine  grapes,  popular  in  southern  gar- 
dens, but  only  recently  becoming  known  commercially. 


FIG.   281—  CROSS-WIRE   SYSTEM   SHOWING    PRUNED   VINE 


are  rarely  pruned  because  pruning  is  supposed  to  injure 
the  vines.  This  is  an  error;  for  if  pruned  at  the  proper 
season  —  October  or  November  —  thev  will  not  be  hurt, 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  331 

but  benefited.  If  pruned  later — December  to  February— 
they  bleed  moreor  lesscopiouslyas  spring  opensandmake 
poorer  growth  the  season  following  (15).  After  young 
vines  have  made  growths  of,  say,  6  inches  in  spring,  they 
may  be  pruned  without  serious  damage,  but  large  vines 
pruned  then  will  bleed  badly.  Vines  pruned  later  may 
be  a  week  or  two  later  in  producing  their  shoots  than  un- 
pruned  vines  or  vines  pruned  at  the  proper  time  (215). 
Methods  of  pruning  used  upon  Labrusca  varieties  may 
be  employed  with  this  group  of  varieties,  but  the  musca- 
dines are  generally  grown  upon  arbors  (Fig.  280). 

244.  The  cross-wire  system,  used  near  Marlboro,  N.  Y., 
has  posts  8  feet  apart  each  way  6l/2  feet  above  ground  and 
surmounted  by  two  wires  crossing  at  right  angles.     The 
vines  are  trained  to  the  posts  as  single  trunks  and  made 
to  develop  four  arms,  each  of  which  extends  along  a  wire 
(Fig.  281).    Annually  these  canes  are  renewed. 

245.  The  umbrella  system,  sometimes  used  on  hillsides 
and  uneven  ground  where  a  trellis  would  be  difficult  to 
construct,  consists  of  a  post  with  two  cross  arms  at  right 
angles  at  the  top  (Fig.  261).    The  vines  reach  the  cross 
during  the  second  year.     From  the  vine  head  arms  and 
canes  are  developed  as  in  the  cross  wire  system   (244). 
Pruning  consists   in   cutting  back   the   vines   to   the   re- 
quisite number  of  buds  indicated  by  the  strength  of  the 
vine.    The  posts  are  usually  4  to  5  feet  above  ground. 

246.  Calif ornian   systems*  of  vine  pruning  may  be  divided  in'o 
two  classes  according  to  the  arrangement  of  the  arms  on  the  trunk 
of  the  vine.     In  the  commonest  systems,  there  is  a  definite  head  to 
the  trunk,   from  which  all  the   arms  arise  symmetrically  at  nearly 
the  same  level.     The  vines  of  these  systems  may  be  called  "hea^e'l 
vines."     In  the  other  systems,  the  trunk  is  elongated  4  to  8  feet  .'in  1 
the  arms  are  distributed  regularly  along  the  whole  or  the  greater 
portion  of  its  length.    The  vines  of  these  systems,  owing  to  the  rope- 
like  form  of  the  trunks,  are  called  "cordons." 

The  headed  vines  are  divided  according  to  the  length  of  the  ver- 
tical trunk  into  high,  2-3  feet,  medium,  \l/2  feet,  and  low,  0-6  inches. 
The  cordons  may  be  vertical  or  horizontal,  according  to  the  direction 

*  Paragraphs  246  to  263  have  been  condensed  from  F.  T.  Bioletti's  Bulletin  246 
of  the  California  Experiment  Station. 


332  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

of  the  trunk,  which  is  from  4  to  8  feet  long.  The  horizontal  cordons 
may  be  single  or  composed  of  two  branches  extending  in  opposite 
directions.  Double  and  even  multiple  vertical  cordons  occur,  but 
they  are  very  inadvisable  and  have  no  advantages. 

The  arrangement  of  the  arms  of  a  headed  vine  may  be  sym- 
metrical in  all  directions  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  Such  a 
vine  is  said  to  be  "vase-formed,"  though  the  hollow  center  which  this 
term  implies  is  not  essential.  This  is  the  form  used  in  the  great 
majority  of  California  vineyards.  It  is  suitable  for  the  "square" 
system  of  planting  and  cross  cultivation.  Where  vines  are  planted 
in  "avenues,"  particularly  when  trellised  and  where  cross  cultivation 
is  impossible,  the  arms  are  given  a  "fan-shaped"  arrangement  in  a 
vertical  plane,  to  facilitate  working  of  trellised  vines. 

On  the  vertical  or  upright  cordon,  the  arms  are  arranged  at  as 
regular  intervals  as  possible  on  all  sides  of  the  trunk  from  the  top 
to  within  12  or  15  inches  of  the  bottom.  On  the  horizontal  cordon 
they  are  arranged  similarly,  but  as  nearly  as  possible  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  trunk  only. 

Each  of  these  systems  may  again  be  divided  into  two  sub-systems, 
according  to  the  management  6f  the  annual  growth  or  canes.  In 
one,  called  short  or  spur  pruning,  spurs  oj  one  to  three  eyes  are 
left  for  fruit  production.  In  the  other,  called  long  or  cane  pruning, 
long  canes  are  left.  In  rare  cases  an  intermediate  form  is  adopted 
in  which  long  spurs  or  short  canes  of  five  or  six  eyes  are  left.  In 
cane  pruning  and  half-long  pruning  each  fruit  cane  is  accompanied 
by  one  or  two  short  renewal  spurs.  Systems  of  pruning,  where  only 
long  canes  are  left  without  renewal  spurs,  are  not  in  use  in  Cali- 
fornia. In  all  systems,  replacing  spurs  are  left  wherever  and  when- 
ever needed. 

Other  modifications  are  introduced  by  the  manner  of  disposal  of 
the  fruit  canes  which  may  be  tied  up  vertically  or  bowed  in  a  circle 
and  tied  to  a  stake  driven  at  the  foot  of  each  vine,  or  they  may  be 
tied  laterally  to  wires  stretching  along  the  rows  in  a  horizontal, 
ascending  or  descending  direction. 

Figure  290  b,  representing  a  headed,  vase-formed  vine,  with  a 
medium  trunk  and  short  fruit  spurs,  is  the  most  common  system  used 
in  California.  It  is  suited  for  all  small  growing  vines  which  bear  on 
the  lower  buds,  for  most  wine  grapes  and  for  muscats.  The  unit  of 
pruning  in  this  case  is  a  fruit  spur  of  1  to  3  internodes,  according 
to  the  vigor  of  the  variety  and  of  the  individual  cane. 

Figure  290  a  differs  from  b  only  in  the  higher  trunk  and  the  longer 
arms.  It  is  commonly  used  for  Tokay  and  other  large  growing 
varieties,  especially  in  rich  soil  and  when  planted  far  apart. 

Figure  290  c  has  the  same  form  of  body  as  a  and  b,  except  that  the 
arms  are  somewhat  less  numerous.  The  unit  of  pruning  is  a  short 
fruit  cane  of  four  to  five  internodes,  accompanied  by  a  renewal  spur 
of  one  internode.  It  is  suited  for  vigorous  table  grapes,  especially 
for  Cornichon  and  Malaga  in  rich  soil,  which  do  not  bear  well  <m 
short  spurs.  This  is  a  difficult  system  to  keep  in  good  shape  owing 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


'663 


to  the  tendency  for  all  the  vigor  to  go  to  the  ends  of  the  fruit  canes. 
It  is  difficult  to  obtain  vigorous  canes  on  the  renewal  spurs.  Oc- 
casional short  pruning  is  usually  necessary  to  keep  the  vines  in 
proper  shape. 

Figure  290  a  is  similar  to  c  in  form,  but  the  number  of  arms  is  still 
further  reduced  to  2,  3,  or  at  most  4.  The  unit  of  pruning  is  a  fruit 
cane  of  2l/2  to  3l/2  feet  with  its  renewal  spur.  Owing  to  their  length* 
the  fruit  canes  require  support  and  are  tied  to  a  high  stake. 

This  method  is  used  in  a  large  number  of  Sultanina  and  Sultana 
vineyards  and  for  certain  wine  grapes,  especially  Semillon  and 
Cabernet.  It  is  not  to  be  recommended  in  any  case,  as  it  has  several 
very  serious  defects. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  new  wood  from  the  renewal  spurs  is 
even  greater  than  in  the  system  shown  in  Figure  290  c.  The  length  and 
vertical  position  of  the  fruit  canes  cause  the  main  growth  and  vigor 
of  the  vine  to  be  expended  on  the  highest  shoots  (73).  The  renewal 
spurs  are  thus  so  shaded  that,  even  though  their  buds  start,  the 
shoots  make  but  a  weak 
growth.  The  result  is 
that  at  the  following 
pruning  all  the  good 
new  wood  is  at  the  top 
of  the  fruit  canes  of 
the  previous  year, 
where  it  cannot  be  uti- 
lized. The  pruner  has 
to  choose  then  between 
reverting  to  spur  prun- 
ing, thus  getting  no 
crop,  or  using  the 
weak  growth  from  the 
renewal  spurs  for  fruit 
canes;  In  this  case  he 
may  get  blossoms  but 
little  or  no  fruit  of  any 
value. 

Other  defects  of  this 
method  are  that  the 
fruiting  shoots  are  ex- 
cessively vigorous  and 
therefore  often  tend  to 
drop  their  blossoms 
without  setting  and  the 
fruit  when  produced  is 
massed  together  so  it 
ripens  unevenly  and  is 
difficult  to  gather.  It 
also  requires  a  tall  and 
expensive  stake. 


:IG.   282— SULTANINA  VINE  SHOWING    EFFECT 
OF  TYING   FRUIT  CANES  IN   VERTICAL 

POSITION 

S,  suckers  and  water  sprouts;  F,  strong  fruit 
wood;  /,  weak  fruit  wood;  C,  previous  year's  fruit 
canes  which  have  borne  a  crop. 


334  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF   PRUNING 

Figure  290  b,  an  improvement  on  the  last  system,  differs  only  in  the 
method  of  treating  the  fruit  canes.  These  are  bent  over  in  the 
form  of  a  circle  and  tied  by  their  middle  part  to  a  stake  which  may 
be  smaller  and  lower  than  that  needed  for  the  vertical  canes.  This 
bowing  of  the  canes  has  several  useful  effects.  The  change  of  di- 
rection moderates  the  tendency  of  the  vigor  of  the  vine  to  expend 
jtself  only  on  the  terminal  shoots.  More  shoots  therefore  are  formed 
on  the  fruit  canes  and  as  their  vigor  is  somewhat  decreased  they 
tend  to  be  more  fruitful.  The  slight  mechanical  injury  caused  by 
the  bending  operates  in  the  same  direction  (104). 

The  excess  of  vigor  thus  being  diverted  from  the  fruit  canes 
causes  the  renewal  spurs  to  form  vigorous  shoots,  which  soon  grow 
above  the  fruit  shoots  and  obtain  the  light  and  air  they  need  for 
their  proper  development.  This  method  is  used  successfully  for 
certain  wine  grapes  such  as  Riesling,  Cabernet  and  Semillon.  It  is 
unsuited  to  large,  vigorous  varieties  or  for  vines  on  rich  soil  planted 
wide  apart.  In  these  cases  two  fruit  canes  are  usually  insufficient 
and,  if  more  are  used,  the  grapes  and  leaves  are  so  massed  together 
that  they  are  subject  to  mildew  and  do  not  ripen  evenly  or  well. 
The  bowing  and  tying  of  the  canes  require  much  skill  and  care. 

The  body,  arms  and  annual  pruning  of  the  system  shown  in 
Fig.  265  are  similar  to  those  of  Fig.  288,  with  the  exception  that  the 
arms  are  given  a  fan-shaped  arrangement  in  one  plane.  It  differs 
in  the  disposal  of  the  fruit  canes,  which  are  supported  by  a  trellis 
stretching  along  the  row  from  vine  to  vine.  This  method,  largely 
used  for  the  Sultanina  (Thompson's  Seedless),  is  the  best  system 
for  vigorous  vines  which  require  long  pruning,  wherever  it  is  pos- 
sible to  dispense  with  cross  cultivation.  It  is  also  suitable  for  any 
long-pruned  varieties  when  growing  in  very  fertile  soil. 

The  vertical  cordon  system  consists  of  an  upright  trunk  4^  feet 
high  with  short  arms  and  fruit  spurs  scattered  evenly  and  sym- 
metrically from  the  top  to  within  15  inches  of  the  bottom.  This 
system  is  used  in  many  Emperor  vineyards  in  the  San  Joaquin 
valley.  Its  advantages  are  that  it  allows  the  large  development  of 
the  vine  and  the  large  number  of  spurs  which  the  vigor  of  the  Em- 
peror demands,  without  either  crowding  the  fruit  by  the  proximity 
of  the  spurs  or  spreading  the  vine  so  much  that  cultivation  is  in- 
terfered with.  It  also  permits  cross  cultivation. 

One  of  its  defects  is  that  the  fruit  is  subjected  to  various  degrees 
of  temperature  and  shading  in  different  parts  of  the  vine  and  the 
ripening  and  coloring  are  often  uneven.  A  more  vital  defect  is  that 
it  cannot  be  maintained  permanently.  The  arms  and  spurs  at  the 
top  of  the  trunk  tend  to  absorb  the  energies  of  the  vine  and  the 
lower  arms  and  spurs  become  weaker  each  year  until  finally  no 
growth  at  all  is  obtained  below.  After  several  years,  most  of  the 
vines  therefore  lose  their  character  of  cordons  and  become  simply 
headed  vines  with  abnormally  long  trunks. 

The  cordon  can  be  re-established  in  this  case  by  allowing  a  vigor- 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  335 

•ous  sucker  from  which  to  develop  one  year  to  form  a  new  trunk 
the  next.  The  following  year  the  old  trunk  must  be  removed  en- 
tirely. An  objection  to  this  method  is  that  it  makes  very  large 
wounds  in  the  most  vital  part  of  the  vine — the  base  of  the  trunk. 

The  unilateral,  horizontal  cordon  system  consists  of  a  trunk  about 
7  feet  long,  supported  horizontally  by  a  wire  2  feet  from  the 
ground.  Arms  and  spurs  are  arranged  along  the  whole  horizontal 
part  of  the  trunk.  This  system  accomplishes  the  same  objects  as 
the  vertical  cordon.  It  allows  a  large  development  of  the  vine  and 
numerous  fruit  spurs  without  crowding.  It  is  superior  to  the  vertical 
cordon  in  the  distribution  of  the  fruit,  which  is  all  exposed  to  ap- 
proximately the  same  conditions  owing  to  the  uniform  distance  of 
the  fruit  spurs  from  the  ground.  All  parts  of  the  trunk  producing 
an  annual  growth  of  wood  and  fruit  are  equally  exposed  to  light,  and 
the  tendency  of  the  growth  to  occur  principally  at  the  part  of  the 
trunk  farthest  removed  from  the  root  is  counteracted  by  the  hori- 
zontal position.  There  is  not  the  same  difficulty  therefore  in  main- 
taining this  form  of  vine  permanently  there  is  with  vertical  cordons. 

The  system  should  not  be  used  for  small  weak  vines,  whether 
the  weakness  is  a  characteristic  of  the  variety  or  due  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  It  is  suited  to  only  very  vigorous  varieties  such  as 
Emperor,  Almeria  and  the  Persian  grapes  when  growing  far  apart 
in  rich,  moist  soil. 

246a.  Periods  of  development.— The  first  period  of  development, 
which  lasts  one  or  two  years,  is  devoted  to  developing  a  vigorous 
root  system;  the  next  two  or  three  years  to  building  up  a  shapely 
trunk  and  head,  and  a  like  period  to  forming  the  full  complement 
of  arms.  At  the  end  of  five  to  nine  years  the  framework  of  the 
vine  is  complete  and  should  undergo  no  particular  change  of  shape 
except  a  gradual  thickening  of  trunk  and  arms. 

There  are,  therefore,  several  periods  in  the  life  of  the  vine  with 
varying  objects,  and  the  methods  of  pruning  must  vary  accordingly. 
These  periods  do  not  correspond  exactly  to  periods  of  time,  so  it 
may  be  misleading  to  speak  of  pruning  a  two-year-old  or  a  three- 
year-old  vine.  One  vine  under  certain  conditions  will  reach  the 
same  stage  of  development  in  two  years  that  another  will  reach  only 
in  three  or  four  under  other  conditions.  Under  exceptionally  fa- 
vorable conditions  the  first  and  second  periods  may  be  included  in 
the  first  year  and  a  completely  formed  vine  may  be  obtained  in  five 
years. 

247.  At  planting  time.— Whether  cuttings,  one-year-old  rooted 
'ines,  or  bench  grafts  are  used,  the  vines  need  attention.  The 
isual  way  to  prune  a  good,  rooted  vine  of  average  size  with  a  single 
•ane  at  the  top  and  several  good  roots  at  the  bottom  is  to  shorten 
the  cane  to  one  or  two  buds  and  the  roots  to  2  or  4  inches,  accord- 
ing to  their  size.  Shortening  the  cane  makes  the  vine  less  liable  to 
Iry  out  before -rooting  and  forces  the  growth  from  the  lower  buds, 
produce  more  vigorous  shoots.  The  roots  are  shortened 


336 


PRINCIPLES    A XI)    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNLNG 


(Fig.  283)  so  there  will  be  no  danger  of  the  ends  being  turned  up- 
wards when  planted.  If  they  are  to  be  planted  in  a  large  hole  they 
may  be  left  as  long  as  5  or  6  inches;  if  to  be 
planted  with  a  crowbar  or  a  dibble,  they  must 
be  cut  back  to  M>  inch. 

There  is  little  if  any  advantage  in  leaving 
long  pieces  of  roots.  They  are  not  feeding 
roots  and  are  of  no  use  to  the  vine  until  they 
develop  feeding  rootlets.  This  they  will  do 
as  well  if  shortened  as  if  left  of  full  length, 
often  better.  The  main  advantage  of  a  rooted 
vine  over  a  cutting  is  that  it  forms  rootlets 
more  easily  and  rapidly.  There  may  be  a 
slight  advantage  in  leaving  3  or  4  inches  of 
the  sound  well-grown  roots,  as  the  reserve 
matters  they  contain  probably  promote  a  bet- 
ter growth  of  rootlets,  but  little  or  no  differ- 
ence has  been  noted  between  the  growth  of 
vines  of  which  the  roots  have  been  shortened 
to  l/2  inch  and  those  which  have  been  left 
longer.  Where  the  roots  are  left  long,  more- 
over, more  care  and  time  are  needed  in 
planting. 

If  the  rooted  vine  has  several  canes,  all  out 
one  should  be  removed  entirely,  and  this  one 
shortened  to  one  or  two  eyes.  The  one  left 
should  be  that  which  is  strongest,  has  the  best 
buds,  and  is  the  best  placed.  Where  a  hori- 
zontal cane  is  left,  it  should  be  cut  back  to  the 
base  bud.  Otherwise  the  main  growth  may  occur 
at  a  higher  bud  and  the  vine  will  have  a  crook 
which  will  result  in  a  badly  formed  trunk. 

If  equally  vigorous  canes  are  growing  from 
different  joints  it  is  usually  best  to  leave  tin- 
lower  cane.  This  brings  the  buds  from  which 
growth  will  come  nearer  to  the  roots,  and 
leaves  less  of  the  original  cutting.  The  upper 
joint  between  the  canes  is,  moreover,  often 
more  or  less  decayed  or  imperfect. 

248.  Planting. — Cuttings  differ  only  in  length  ;  the  shortest. 
10  inches,  are  best  suited  to  the     nursery,  those  12  to  14  inches  t«> 
the  field,  the  longest  16  to  18  inches  in  only  the  driest  soils.     Always 
they  are  cut  just  below  a  bud  to  facilitate  healing  and  root  forma- 
tion.   The  top  may  be  cut  just  above  a  bud  so  as  to  leave  the  pro 
tecting    diaphragm    or    about    1    inch    of    internode.      Cuttings    are 
planted  with  the  second  bud  at  the  level  of  the  ground,  leaving  only 
one  bud  above.     Rooted   vines  are  planted  with  the  two  buds  just 


FIG.      283  —  ROOTED 

VINE  PRUNED 
This  is  a  bench- 
grafted  vine  in  which 
SS  shows  a  sucker 
from  the  stock;  U,  the 
point  of  union  of  stock 
and  cion,  and  CR  the 
cion  root.  The  dotted 
line  at  the  bottom  in- 
dicates where  the  roots 
should  be  pruned. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  337 

above  the  surface.  Bench  grafts  are  planted  with  the  union  1  inch 
above  the  surface.  In  the  last  case  the  soil  must  be  hilled  up  so  as 
to  cover  the  union. 

249.  First  growing  season.— The  treatment  during  the  first  spring 
and  summer  will  depend  on  what  growth  the  vines  are  expected  to 
make  and  on  whether  or  not  the  vines  are  staked  the  first  year. 

With  cuttings  and  with  both  rooted  vines  and  grafts  where  the 
growt.h  will  be  moderate,  staking  the  first  year  is  unnecessary, 
though  it  has  some  slight  advantages.  In  these  cases,  no  pruning  of 
any  kind  is  necessary  until  the  winter  following  the  planting,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  bench  grafts,  in  which  case  the  removal  of  the 
suckers  from  the  stock  and  roots  from  the  cion  is  essential.  If  the 
stocks  have  been  well  disbudded  by  the  nurseryman,  few  suckers 
will  develop.  In  moist  soil,  the  cion  roots  may  develop  vigorously 
and  must  be  removed  before  they  grow  too  large,  or  they  may  pre- 
vent the  proper  development  of  the  resistant  roots. 

The  removal  of  roots  should  usually  be  done  some  time  in  July. 
For  this  purpose  the  hill  of  soil  is  scraped  away  from  the  union  and 
after  the  cion  roots  and  suckers  are  removed  it  is  replaced.  In  this 
second  hilling  up,  the  union  should  be  barely  covered  so  the  soil 
around  the  union  will  be  dry  and  unfavorable  to  a  second 
growth  of  roots.  Later  in  the  season,  about  September,  the  soil 
should  be  removed  entirely  from  around  the  union  and  any  new 
roots  that  may  have  formed  removed.  The  union  is  then  left  ex- 
posed to  harden  and  mature,  so  it  will  pass  the  winter  without  injury. 

If  the  main  shoot  is  kept  upright  it  will  be  easy  to  produce  a  well- 
formed  vine.  In  many  cases  no  disbudding,  thinning  of  shoots,  or 
topping  need  be  done.  The  object  is  to  have  as  abundant  a  growth 
of  foliage  as  possible  in  order  to  stimulate  a  vigorous  and  abundant 
root  development  (21?,,  a).  In  other  cases,  where  very  good, 
rooted  vines  of  vigorous  varieties  are  planted  in  rich  soil  abundantly 
supplied  with  water,  it  is  desirable  to  disbud  the  vine  early  in  order 
to  throw  all  its  energies  into  the  single  main  cane.  In  such  cases 
staking  before  or  just  after  planting  is  necessary,  and  methods 
similar  to  those  described  for  the  second  season  are  used. 

250.  First  winter  pruning.— At  the  end  of  the  first  growing  season, 
an  average  good  vine  will  have  produced  from  three  to  five  canes, 
the  longest  of  which  will  be  2  to  3  feet  long.    Soon  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen  in   December  or  early  in  January  the  vines  should  be 
pruned.     The  method  is  precisely  similar  to  that  used  for  rooted 
vines  before  planting  except  that  the  main  roots  are  not  touched. 
All  the  canes  except  one  are  removed.     This   one  should  be  well 
matured,  at  least   at   the   base,   and   should  have  welt-formed   eyes 
only,  two  eyes  of  which  are  saved.     It  is  well  also  to  cut  off  all 
shallow  roots  within   3  or  4  inches  of   the  surface.     This   is  nec- 
essary in  the  case  of  grafted  vines  if  any  have  escaped  the  summer 
root-cutting.     Some  vines  which   may  have   made   an  exceptionally 
large   growth    may   sometimes    possess    a   cane    large    enough    from 


338 


PRINCIPLES    AND    1'KACTICK    OK 


which  to  start  the  trunk  in  the  way  described  later  for  the  second 
winter  pruning. 

251.  Staking. — If  the  vines  have  not  been  staked  before,  the  stakes 
should  be  driven  soon  after  pruning  and  before  the  starting  of  the 
buds.  In  order -to  preserve  the  alignment  of  the  vineyard,  they 
should  be  driven  on  the  same  side  of  every  vine  at  a  uniform  dis- 
tance of  about  2  inches.  If  driven  closer  they  may  injure  large  roots 
or  even  the  main  underground  stem  if  the  vines  have  not  been  care- 
fully planted  vertically  or  slanting  toward  the  side  on  which  the 
stake  is  to  be  placed. 

The  position  of  the  stake  should  always  be  the  leeward  of  pre- 
vailing winds  during  the  growing  season.  That  is,  the  stake  should 
be  so  placed  that  the  wind  will  press  the  vine  toward  it  instead  of 


FIG.    284— TREATMENT    OF    AN    AVERAGE    VINE    DURING    SECOND    SEASON 

a,    Winter   pruning;    b,    spring    pruning — removal    of   suckers    (S)    and    thinning    of 

shoots    (W)  ;   c,    summer    treatment — tying   to    stake    and    topping. 

away  from  it.  This  will  facilitate  the  work  of  keeping  the  vine 
upright  and  attached  to  the  stake.  If  the  vine  is  on  the  other  side 
the  pressure  of  the  wind  will  stretch  the  string  tight  and  the  sway- 
ing of  the  vine  will  gradually  wear  it  until  it  breaks,  necessitating 
retying.  By  carefully  observing  this  rule,  very  few  vines  will  re- 
quire retying  even  if  weak  material  like  binding  twine  is  used. 

252.  Second  summer  pruning.— Before  the  starting  of  the  buds,  in 
the  spring  following  the  planting,  most  of  the  vines  appear  about 
the  same  as  when  they  were  planted.  There  is,  however,  a  very 
notable  difference;  they  have  well-developed  root  systems  in  the 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  339 

soil  where  they  were  formed.  The  result  is  they  make  a  much  more 
prompt  and  early  start  and  will  produce  a  much  larger  growth  than 
the  first  season.  Hence  they  require  very  careful  attention  from  the 
pruner  during  the  spring  and  summer  of  the  second  season.  Vines 
neglected  at  this  time,  in  this  respect,  may  make  as  large  a  growth, 
but  a  large  part  of  it  will  be  wasted,  the  vines  will  be  misformed 
and  it  will  require  one  to  two  years  longer  to  develop  a  suitable 
framework  and  to  bring  them  into  bearing,  even  though  they  are 
properly  handled  during  subsequent  years.  The  more  vigorous  the 
vines,  the  more  necessary  it  is  to  handle  them  properly  during  this 
period. 

The  main  object  during  this  second  growing  season  is  to  develop 
a  single,  strong,  vigorous  and  well-ripened  cane  from  which  to  form 
the  permanent  trunk  of  the  vine.  This  is  done  by  concentrating  all 
the  energies  of  the  vine  into  the  growth  of  a  single  shoot.  As  soon 
as  the  buds  start,  or  when  the  most  precocious  has  developed  a  shoot 
of  a  few  inches,  the  vines  should  be  disbudded.  This  consists  in 
rubbing  off  with  the  hand  all  buds  and  shoots  except  the  two  largest 
and  best  placed.  The  lowest  upright  shoots  are  usually  the  best. 
Leave  only  those  which  will  make  a  straight  vine.  It  is  better  to 
leave  less-developed  buds  than  a  shoot  which,  when  it  grows,  will 
make  an  awkward  crook  with  the  underground  stem. 

After  this  disbudding,  the  two  shoots  left  will  grow  rapidly,  as 
they  receive  all  the  energies  of  the  root  system.  When  the  longest 
have  grown  10  to  15  inches,  they  should  be  tied  to  the  stake.  Un- 
less this  is  done,  they  are  likely  to  be  broken  off  by  any  heavy  wind, 
owing  to  their  soft,  succulent  texture.  Only  the  best  placed  and  most 
vigorous  of  the  two  shoots  should  be  tied  up.  If  this  shoot  is  grow- 
ing upright  and  near  the  stake,  this  can  be  done  without  any  danger 
of  injuring  it.  In  this  case  the  second  shoot  should  be  removed.  If 
the  shoot  has  to  be  bent  over  in  tying  it  to  the  stake  it  may  be  in- 
jured. In  such  a  case  the  second  shoot  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
until  it  is  known  whether  the  first  has  been  injured.  In  case  of 
injury  the  second  shoot  may  be  tied  up  the  next  time  the  vines  are 
visited  and  the  injured  shoot  removed. 

At  the  tying  up  of  the  reserved  shoots,  all  new  shoots  which  have 
developed  since  the  first  disbudding  should  be  removed.  As  they 
are  soft  and  easily  injured  the  shoots  should  be  tied  up  loosely 
after  being  brought  around  carefully  to  the  windward  side  of  the 
stake. 

They  will  require  tying  once  more  when  they  have  grown  an- 
other foot  or  18  inches.  There  will  then  be  two  ties,  one  at  2  or  3 
inches  from  the  top  of  the  stake  and  the  other  at  about  the  middle. 
If  the  vines  have  a  tall  stake  and  are  to  be  headed  very  high,  an- 
other tying  higher  up  may  be  needed  later. 

With  vines  making  only  a  moderate  growth,  no  other  pruning 
will  be  needed  until  the  winter.  Exceptionally  vigorous  vines,  how- 
ever, may  make  a  cane  8,  10  or  more  feet  long.  Such  a  cane  is 
heavy  and  is  very  likely  to  break  the  cords  by  which  it  is  attached 


340 


PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


to  the  stake.  Tn  this  case  it  may  break  off  at  the  hottom,  or  at  least 
will  form  an  awkward  crook  near  the  ground  when  it  matures.  In 
either  case  it  is  difficult  to  form  a  good  trunk  the  following  year. 
Even  when  the  ties  do  not  break,  the  cane  will  not  be  well  suited 
for  the  commencement  of  a  trunk,  as  the  joints  will  be  so  long  that 
it  will  be  impossible  to  leave  enough  well-placed  buds  at  the  winter 
pruning. 

Both  these  difficulties  are  avoided  by  timelv  topping.  When  such 
vigorously  growing  canes  have  grown  12  or  18  inches  above  the  top 
of  the  stake  they  are  cut  back  about  level  with  the  stake.  This  is 
most  conveniently  done  with  a  long-bladed  knife  or  a  piece  of  split 
bamboo.  After  topping,  the  cane  ceases  to  grow  in  length  and 
laterals  start  at  most  of  the  joints.  It  is  less 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind  and  the  laterals 
supply  the  buds  needed  for  forming  the  vine  at 
the  winter  pruning. 

The  result  of  the  second  season's  growth, 
then,  is  to  produce  a  single  vigorous  cane 
with  or  without  laterals.  This  is  the  cane  which 
is  to  develop  into  the  permanent  trunk  of  the 
vine.  It  must  not  only  be  large  and  vigorous, 
but  must  be  properly  matured.  If  the  vine  is 
allowed  to  grow  too  late  in  the  season,  an  early 
frost  may  destroy  the  unmatured  cane  and  much 
of  the  results  of  the  year's  growth  will  be  wasted. 
Such  a  frost  may  indeed  kill  the  entire  vine. 
Grafted  vines  are  particularly  liable  to  injury 
from  this  cause,  as  if  they  are  killed  down  to  the 
union  they  are  completely  ruined.  Un^rafted 
vines  when  killed  to  the  ground  may  be  renewed 
from  a  sucker  next  year.  This  sucker,  however, 
is  likely  to  grow  with  such  vigor  that  it  is  even 
more  liable  to  injury  from  an  autumn  frost  than 
the  original  shoot. 

This  late  growth  is  much  more  likely  to  occur 
with  young  vines  than  with  old.  The  old  vines 
stop  growing  earlier  because  their  energies  are 
directed  into  the  crop,  and  as  they  produce  a 
larger  amount  of  foliage  they  draw  more  upon 
the  moisture  of  the  soil,  which  therefore  dries 
out  earlier. 

If  possible,  late  growth  of  the  young  vines  must  be  prevented 
and  the  wood  matured  before  frost.  This  is  accomplished  by  means 
which  promote  the  drying  of  the  soil  in  autumn.  Late  irrigations 
should  be  avoided.  Cultivation  should  usually  stop  by  midsurmrer. 
In  very  moist,  rich  soils  it  is  often  an  advantage  to  grow  corn,  sun- 
flowers or  similar  crops  between  the  rows  of  vines  to  take  off  the 
surplus  moisture.  In  some  cases  it  is  good  practice  to  let  the  sum- 
mer weeds  grow  for  the  same  purpose. 


FIG.    285 
GRAPE  SPUR 
Letters   and  lines 
indicate       positions 
HI     good     and     bad 
cuts    (253). 


GRAPE    PRUNING   AND  TRAINING  34 1 

253.  Second  winter  pruning.— With  vines  which  have  been  treated 
as  described  and  to  which  no  accident  has  happened,  the  second 
winter  pruning  is  very  simple.  It  consists  simply  in  cutting  back 
the  single  cane  which  has  been  allowed  to  grow  to  the  height  at 
which  it  is  desired  to  head  the  vine. 

In  all  cases  a  full  internode  must  be  left  above  the  top  bud.  This 
is  done  by  cutting  through  the  first  bud  above  the  highest  which 
it  is  desired  to  have  grow.  This  cut  is  made  in  such  a  way  as  to 
destroy  the  bud  (Fig.  285),  but  to  leave  the  diaphragm  intact  and 
part  of  the  swelling  of  the  node.  This  upper  internode  is  left  partly 
to  protect  the  upper  bud,  but  principally  to  facilitate  tying.  By 
making  a  half-hitch  around  this  internode,  the  vine  is  held  very 
firmly.  If  the  swelling  at  the  node  of  the  destroyed  bud  is  not  left, 
many  vines  will  be  pulled  out  of  the  hitch  when  they  become  heas'y 
with  leaves  and  supple  with  the  flow  of  sap  in  the  spring. 

In  tying  the  vines,  no  turns  or  hitches  must  be  made  around  any 
part  except  this  upper  internode.  A  hitch  below  the  top  bud  will 
result  in  a  crook-necked  vine,  as  the  top  will  bend  over  in  the  sum- 
mer under  the  weight  of  the  foliage.  A  hitch  lower  down  is  even 
more  harmful,  as  it  will  girdle  and  strangle  the  vine.  A  second  tie 
about  half  way  from  the  upper  to  the  ground  is  always  necessary 
to  straighten  the  cane.  Even  if  the  cane  is  straight  when  pruned, 
a  second  tie  is  needed  to  keep  it  from  curving  under  the  pressure 
of  leaves  and  wind  in  the  spring.  For  high-headed  vines  three  ties 
are  usually  necessary. 

For  the  top  tie,  wire  is  particularly  suitable.  It  holds  better  than 
twine  and  does  not  wear.  Even  though  it  is  not  removed,  it  does 
no  harm,  as  the  part  around  which  it  is  wound  does  not  grow.  The 
lower  ties  should  be  of  softer  material  as  wire  has  a  tendency  to 
cut  into  the  wood.  They  should  be  placed  so  the  cane  is  able  to  ex- 
pand as  it  grows.  With  thin  and  especially  with  round  stakes  this 
means  that  the  tie  must  be  loose.  With  large,  square  stakes  there 
is  usually  sufficient  room  for  expansion,  even  when  the  twine  is 
tied  tight. 

However  careful  the  pruner,  many  of  the  vines  cannot  be  pruned 
quite  so  simply  as  those  described.  These  methods  therefore  must 
often  be  modified.  Some  of  the  vines  may  not  make  a  sufficient 
growth  of  cane  to  be  tied  up  in  the  way  indicated.  They  should  be 
pruned  back  again  to  two  buds,  as  at  the  previous  winter  pruning, 
and  special  care  taken  during  the  following  summer  to  develop  a 
good  cane  on  each.  Vines  in  which  the  development  of  the  tying-up 
cane  is  thus  delayed  a  year  will  usually  make  a  very  vigorous  growth 
the  following  summer.  They  must  be  topped.  The  result  at  the 
following  winter  pruning  will  be  a  vigorous  cane  with  laterals, 
which  should  be  pruned.  All  vines  which  have  not  made  a  growth 
of  well-developed,  mature  cane  of  the  length  desired  should  be  cut 
back  to  two  buds.  This  length  will  usually  be  at  least  twice  that  of 
the  desired  height  of  trunk  because  the  upper  part  of  the  cane  is 
usually  badly  matured  and  with  imperfect  buds.  It  is  bad  practice 
to  cut  canes  to  intermediate  lengths,  as  this  results  usually  in  crooked 


342 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 


trunks  and  inevitably  to  variations  in  the   height  of  the  heads  of 
different  vines. 

If  the  suckering,  disbudding  and  thinning  of  shoots  have  been 
neglected,  there  will  be  more  than  one  cane  on  the  vine.  In  this 
case  all  but  the  strongest  and  best  placed  must  be  removed  and  this 
treated  like  a  single  cane.  Unfortunately  the  strongest  is  often  not 
the  best  placed.  In  fact,  if  tying  up  during  the  summer  has  been 
neglected  it  is  often  the  worst  placed.  The  more  vigorous  the  vine 
the  more  likely  is  the  position  of  the  canes  to  be  defective.  This 
is  especially  true  of  grafts  on  old  vines,  which  should  be  treated  like 
exceptionally  vigorous  vines  during  the  second  growing  season.  In 


FIG.  286— THREE-YEAR-OLD  VINES  AFTER   PRUNING 

a.  Average  vine  with  two  spurs;  b,  vigorous  vine  with  three  spurs,  the  lowest  to  be 
removed  next  season;  c,  vigorous  vine  with  three  spurs. 

these  cases  of  neglected  vines,  the  best  canes  are  often  lying  flat 
on  the  ground.  It  will  require  all  the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the 
pruner  to  get  them  into  a  more  or  less  erect  position.  At  best  they 
will  result  in  crooked,  misshapen  vines. 

By  removing  the  soil  from  around  the  base  of  the  vine  the  cane 
can  often  be  raised  more  easily  and  the  bend  will  then  be  at  leas 
partially  in  the  underground  stem,  where  it  is  less  harmful.     In  the 
worst  cases  it  may  be  impossible  to  raise  a  cane.     It  is  then  IH-C 
essary  to  cut  all  the  canes  back  to  the  old  wood  and  to  develop  a 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


343 


new  cane  the  next  year.  Even  if  the  main  cane  has  been  tied  up, 
the  removal  at  the  collar  of  the  vine  of  the  other  canes,  if  they  are 
numerous  and  large,  makes  many  serious  wounds,  which  in  some 
cases  weaken  the  vine  considerably. 

254.  Third  summer  pruning. — During  the  third  season,  average 
wdl-grown  vines  will  produce  their  first  considerable  crop  and  de- 
velop the  canes  from  which  will  be  formed  the  first  arms.  During 
this  spring  it  will  be  necessary  to  sucker  and  remove  low  shoots  at 
least  once  more.  This  may  be  done  when  the  vines  are  hoed.  If 


FIG.    287— GRAPEVINES    OF    VARIOUS    AGES 

Left,  vine   in   third  year  pruned  by  cane  system.     Middle,  vine  in   fifth  year    (cane 
system).     Right,  spur,  stool  or  short  system;   vine  in  its  fifth  year. 

the  vines  grow  vigorously  the  shoots  should  be  pinched  when  they 
are  18  to  24  inches  long  to  protect  them  from  the  wind. 

255.  Third  winter  pruning.— At  the  end  of  the  third  season's 
growth  the  vine  should  have  a  straight,  well-developed  trunk  with 
near  the  top  several  vigorous  canes  from  which  to  form  the  arms. 
The  pruner  should  leave  enough  spurs  to  supply  all  the  fruit  buds 
the  vine  can  utilize.  The  number,  size  and  thickness  of  the  canes 
show  the  vigor  of  the  vine.  It  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  variety 
how  many  buds  should  be  left.  For  a  variety  whose  bunches  aver- 
age one  pound,  and  which  produces  two  bunches  to  the  shoot,  12 


344  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF    PRUNING 

fruit  buds  should  give  about  24  pounds,  or  about  seven  tons  to  the 
acre,  if  the  vines  are  planted  12  by  6  feet.  The  number  of  spurs 
will  depend  on  the  length.  Six  of  two  buds  each  will  give  the  re- 
quired number,  but  where  the  canes  are  exceptionally  vigorous  they 
should  be  left  a  little  longer,  in  which  case  a  smaller  number  of 
spurs  will  suffice. 

When  the  number  and  length  of  the  spurs  are  decided  on,  the 
canes'  should  be  chosen  which  will  leave  these  spurs  in  the  most 
suitable  position  for  forming  arms.  This  position  will  depend  on 
whether  we  want  a  vase-form  or  a  fan-shaped  vine.  In  the  first 
case,  we  choose  those  which  will  distribute  the  spurs  most  evenly 
and  symmetrically  on  all  sides,  avoiding  any  which  cross  or  point 
downwards ;  in  the  second,  only  those  canes  which  run  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  trellis,  avoiding  canes  which  stick  out  between  the 
rows.  Downward  pointing  canes  may  be  used  in  this  case. 

It  is  comparatively  easy  properly  to  shape  vines  which  make  only 
a  moderate  growth  during  the  first  three  seasons.  On  the  other 
hand,  very  vigorous  vines  may  finally  be  brought  into  practically 
perfect  shape.  The  somewhat  larger  and  more  numerous  wounds 
necessary  are  more  easily  healed  by  a  vigorous  vine. 

256.  Pruning  after  the  third  winter.— For  the  pruner  who  under- 
stands the  pruning  of  young  vines  and  has  brought  them  to  approxi- 
mately the  desired  form,  the  subsequent  winter  pruning  is  very 
simple.  It  involves,  however,  one  new  idea — the  distinction  between 
fruit  and  sterile  wood. 

Up  to  the  third  winter  pruning,  this  distinction  is  not  necessary; 
first,  because  practically  all  the  wood  is  fruit  wood,  and  second, 
because  the  necessity  of  forming  the  vine  controls  the  choice  of 
wood.  From  this  time  on,  however,  this  distinction  must  be  care- 
fully made.  At  each  winter  pruning  spurs  of  fruit  wood  must  be 
left  to  produce  the  crop  to  be  expected  from  the  size  and  vigor  of 
the  vine.  Besides  these  fruit  spurs,  it  may  be  necessary  to  leave 
spurs  of  sterile  wood  to  permit  of  increasing  the  number  of  fruit 
spurs  the  following  year. 

Each  winter  after  the  third  the  same  process  must  be  followed. 
First,  enough  fruit  spurs,  as  well  placed  as  possible,  must  be  left 
to  produce  the  crop.  Second,  on  most  vines,  supplementary  spurs 
of  sterile  wood  must  be  left  to  supply  more  arms  where  they  are 
needed,  and  finally,  when  the  full  complement  of  arms  has  de- 
veloped, to  supply  new  arms  to  replace  those  which  have  become 
too  long  or  are  otherwise  defective. 

Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  find  water  sprouts  in  suitable  positions 
for  replacing  spurs.  This  may  be  due  to_  weakness  of  the  vines, 
which  are  able  to  develop  shoots  on  only  the  fruit  spurs  and  have 
no  surplus  vigor  to  force  out  dormant  buds  on  the  older  wood 
This  difficulty  may  be  met  by  shorter  pruning.  If  an  arm  i 
long,  and  at  the  same  time  weak,  it  should  be  pruned  to  extra  short 
spurs.  This  will  tend  to  force  water  sprouts  to  start  from  the  older 
wood  near  the  base  of  the  arm.  Their  absence  at  the  winter  prim- 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


345 


ing  may  also  be  due  to  the  water  sprouts  having  been  removed 
during  the  summer.  When  water  sprouts  are  removed  the  need  of 
replacing  wood  should  always  be  kept  in  mind,  and  one  vigorous, 
well-placed  water  sprout  left  near  the  base  of  every  long  arm. 

257.  Fan-shaped  vines.— With  headed  vines,  the  treatment  up  to 
the  second  winter  pruning  is  the  same  except  for  the  variations  in 
the  height  of  the  head.     At  the  third  winter  pruning,  however,  the 
formation    of    the    head    commences,    and    the    pruner    determines 
whether    it    shall    be    vase-formed    or    fan-shaped.      At    the    third 
winter  pruning,  the   vine  should  be   pruned  to  two   spurs.     More 
vigorous    vines    should    not    be   given   more    spurs,    but    the    spurs 
should   be   made   longer, 

with  four,  five,  or  even 
six  eyes  in  some  cases. 
This  is  in  order  to  ob- 
tain some  fruit,  which 
might  not  be  obtained 
from  long  pruning  va- 
rieties by  leaving  many 
spurs.  With  extremely 
vigorous  vines  one  fruit 
cane  may  be  left  at  this 
pruning.  The  wires  of 
the  trellis  should  be  put 
up  this  year,  if  this  has 
not  already  been  done. 

258.  Double-h  e  a  d  e  d 
vines.  —  Some      growers 
attempt    to    arrange    the 
arms    of    their    vines    in 
two    stages,    one    above 
the     other,     forming 
double-headed     or     two- 
crowned      vines.        The 
method     is     applied     to 
both     vase-formed     and 
trellised  vines.  It  is  open 
to  the  same  criticisms  as 
is    the    vertical    cordon. 
The  chief  of  these  is  that 
it  cannot  be   maintained 
permanently.    The  lower 
head    or    ring    of    arms 
finally      becomes      weak 

and  fails  to  produce  wood.  It  is  easier  to  maintain  in  trellised  vine- 
yards and  has  some  advantages,  the  chief  of  which  is  that  it  is 
easier  to  keep  the  vine  in  the  single  plane  and  to  prevent  arms  getr 
ting  into  the  inter-rows. 


FIG.  288 

FORMS   OF   GRAPEVINE   HEAD  TRAINING 

a,  vertical  fruit  canes  and  renewal  spurs;  bt  bowed 

canes  and  renewal  spurs 


346  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

259.  Vertical  and  bowed  canes.— This  is  a  method  used  commonly 
in  many  vineyards.     The   unit  of  pruning  is  the  same   as   in  the 
method  just   described,   consisting  of   a   fruit  cane  and  a  renewal 
spur.     The  framework  of  the  vine  consists  of  a  trunk  of  medium 
height,  with  a  vase-formed  head  consisting  of  three  or  four  arms. 
The  defects  of  this  system  have  been  pointed  out   (246).     In  the 
hands  of  skillful  pruners  it  is  used  with  fair  success  with  seedless 
Sultanas  and  with  some  wine  grapes  such  as  Colombar,  Semillon, 
Cabernet  and  Reisling.     The   results   with    Sultanina  are  very  un- 
satisfactory.    By  this  method,  on  most  of  the  vines,  the  fruit  canes 
start  from  high  up  near  the  middle  of  the  stake,  and  are  therefore 
too   short  for  the  best  results.     The  canes  which   start   from  low 
down  are  in  most  cases  suckers,  and  therefore  of  little  value  for 
fruit  bearing. 

Figure  288  b  shows  a  vine  with  bowed  canes.  The  method  of 
pruning  is  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  method  just  described.  The 
bowing  of  the  canes,  however,  overcomes  some  of  the  defects  of 
that  method.  It  is  used  regularly  in  many  wine  grape  vineyards 
of  the  cooler  regions.  It  is  unsuited  for  very  vigorous  vines  in 
rich  soil. 

260.  Vertical  cordons.— In  head  pruning,  the  treatment  of  young 
vines  up  to  the  second  or  third  winter  pruning  is  identical   for  all 
systems.     In  cordon  pruning  the  treatment  for  the  first  and  second 
is  also  the  same.    That  is,  the  vine  is  cut  back  to  two  buds  near  the 
level  ol  the  ground  until  a  cane  sufficiently  long  to  serve  for  the 
formation  of  the  trunk  is  obtained. 

Tn  the  vertical  cordon  the  trunk  is  3  to  4  feet  long  instead  of 
1  to  2,  as  in  head  pruning.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  have  a  longer 
and  more  vigorous  cane  to  start  with.  It  may  require  a  year  longer 
to  obtain  this.  That  is  to  say,  at  the  end  of  the  second  season's 
growth  many  vines  will  not  have  a  single  cane  sufficiently  developed 
to  give  the  necessary  y/2  feet  of  well-ripened  wood  and  properly 
developed  buds.  At  the  second  winter  pruning,  therefore,  it  will 
often  be  necessary  to  cut  the  vine  back  to  two  buds,  as  at  the 
first  winter  pruning. 

Finally,  a  cane  of  the  required  length  will  be  obtained.  The  vine 
may  then  be  formed  as  already  described  for  the  second  winter 
pruning  of  headed  vines,  except  that  the  cane  is  left  longer.  This 
cane  is  then  tied  to  the  stake.  When  s.uch  a  vine  is  pruned  spurs 
are  left  at  intervals  along  the  trunk.  Each  of  these  spurs  is  a  fruit 
spur  and  is  also  the  commencement  of  an  arm.  The  future  treatment 
of  these  arms  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  arms  in  head  pruning. 

261.  Horizontal   cordons.— During   the   first   two   or  three  years, 
vines  to  be  given  the  form  of  horizontal  cordons  are  treated  exactly 
as  for  vertical  cordons,  that  is,  they  are  pruned  back  to  two  buds 
each  winter  and  the  growth  forced  by  disbudding  into  a  single  cane 
during  the  summer.    As  soon  as  a  well-ripened  cane  of  the  required 
length  is  obtained,  it  is  tied  to  a  wire  stretched  horizontally  along 
the  row  at  from  15  to  24  inches  from  the  ground. 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 


347 


For  this  system  of  pruning,  the  rows  should  be  12  to  14  feet 
apart  and  the  vines  6,  7  or  8  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  As  the  cordon 
or  trunk  of  each  vine  should  reach  the  next  vine,  it  will  have  to  be 
6  to  8  feet  long.  The  best  shape  is  obtained  when  the  trunk  is  all 
formed  one  year  from  a  single  cane.  It  is  necessary,  however,  some- 
times to  take  two  years  for  the  formation  of  the  trunk.  In  any  case, 
the  cane  first  tied  down  should  reach  at  least  half  way  to  the  next 
vine.  The  following  year  a  new  cane  from  the  end  of  this  should 
be  used  to  complete  the  full  length  of  the  trunk.  In  attaching  the 
cane  to  the  wire,  it  must  be  bent  over  in  a  gentle  curve  and  care 
taken  not  to  break  or  injure  it.  Sharp  ends  should  be  avoided. 

The  cane  should  be  placed  on  top  of  the  wire,  not  twisted  around  it. 
The  end  should  be  tied  firmly  and  the  rest  of  the  cane  supported  by 
strings  tied  loosely  in  order  to  avoid  girdling  when  the  cane  grows. 

In  the  following  spring,  most  of  the  buds  on  a  good  cane  will 
start.  If  the  cane  is  short  jointed,  some  of  the  shoots  should  be 


*  b  c 

FIG.  289— TREATMENT  OF  AVERAGE  VINE  IN  THIRD  SEASON  OR  VIGOROUS 

ONE   IN   SECOND 

a,  Vine  pruned  to  one  cane  and  tied  to  stake;  b,  removal  of  suckers   (S)   and  lower 
shoots   (W)   in  spring;  c,  vine  in  summer  at  time  of  pinching. 

removed  and  only  those  shoots  allowed  to  develop  which  are  con- 
veniently situated  for  permanent  arms.  If  the  vines  are  to  be  short 
pruned,  the  arms  should  be  developed  every  8  to  12  inches  from  a 
few  inches  beyond  the  bend  to  the  extreme  end.  For  long  pruning, 
the  arms  should  be  farther  apart,  12  to  20  inches.  Shoots  starting 


348  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

from  the  top  of  the  cane  and  growing  vertically  upwards  are  to  be 
preferred. 

As  the  shoots  develop,  the  strongest  should  be  pinched  repeatedly, 
if  necessary.  This  will  tend  to  force  the  growth  of  the  weaker  shoots 
and  to  equalize  the  vigor  of  all.  At  the  end  of  the  season,  there 
should  be  from  5  to  10  canes  growing  on  each  cordon  of  full  length. 
These  canes  are  then  pruned  back  to  two  or  three  buds,  or  a  little 
longer  for  long-pruned  varieties. 

During  the  following  spring  and  summer,  the  vines  should  be 
carefully  suckered  and  unnecessary  water  sprouts  removed.  Any 
shoots  coming  from  the  lower  side  of  the  cordon  should  be  removed 
early  to  strengthen  the  growth  in  the  shoots  on  the  upper  side. 
Such  vines  are  apt  to  become  dry  or  decayed  on  the  upper  side.  At 
the  end  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  year  from  planting  at  the  latest,  the 
cordon  will  be  fully  formed  and  the  final  style  of  pruning  may  be 
applied. 

262.  Renovation   of   imperfect    or  misshapen   vines. — The   pruner 
who  with  definite  ideas  properly  handles  his  vines  from  the  begin- 
ning can,  in  most  cases,  bring  them  into  the  required  shape   with 
comparative  ease.    Often,  perhaps  usually,  he  has  to  deal  with  vines 
which  have  some  more  or  less  serious  fault.    They^  may  be  misshapen 
owing  to  defective  pruning,  or  otherwise  imperfect  owing  to  me- 
chanical injuries,  or  as  the  result  of  frost,  fungi,  or  insect  pests.     If 
the  vines  are  young,  the  defects  can  often  be  overcome  and  the  vine 
given  a  proper  form  very  easily. 

As  the  vines  become  older,  it  becomes  increasingly  difficult  to 
overcome  defects  of  formation.  The  disadvantage  of  a  low  head 
may  be  in  part  avoided  by  gradually  lengthening  the  arms  and  giving 
them  a  more  vertical  direction.  An  ill-formed  head  may  be  im- 
proved by  removing  badly  placed  arms  and  developing  new  arms 
where  needed. 

The  trunks  of  many  old  vines  are  so  defective  that  little  improve- 
ment can  be  obtained  by  these  means.  It  is  possible  and  occasionally 
profitable  completely  to  renew  the  trunks  of  such  vines.  This  may 
be  done  by  developing  a  new  trunk  from  a  strong  cane  originating 
at  or  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  then  cutting  away  the 
old  trunk. 

But  this  method  has  the  same  defect  as  the  grafting  of  old  vines ; 
leaves  a  large  wound  where  the  old  stump  was  removed,  a  w<nm<l 
whicti  may  never  heal  and  which  finally  allows  the  entrance  of 
wood-rot  fungi.  Such  renewed  vines,  however,  may  last  as  long  as 
if  the  old  decayed  trunk  had  been  left,  perhaps  longer.  They  will 
also  be  more  fruitful  and  easier  to  handle  properly.  The  change 
may  be  made  without  the  loss  of  a  crop,  as  occurs  in  grafting.  If 
the  stumps  are  large,  the  expense  of  sawing  them  off  is  considerable, 

263.  Choice  of  a  system. — Jn  choosing  a  system,  we  must  considi-r 
carefully  the  characteristics  of  the  particular  variety  we  are  growing. 
A  variety  which  bears  only  on  the  upper  buds  must  be  pruned  "Ion-." 


GRAPE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING, 


349 


that  is,  must  be  given  fruit  canes.  It  should  be  noted  that  many 
varieties,  such  as  Petite  Sirah,  which  will  bear  with  short  pruning 
when  grafted  on  resistant  roots  require  fruit  canes  when  growing 
on  their  own  roots.  In  general,  grafted  vines  require  shorter  prun- 
ing than  ungrafted.  If  pruned  the  same,  the  grafted  vines  may 
overbear  and  quickly  exhaust  themselves.  This  seems  to  be  the 
principal  reason  for  the  frequent  failure  of  Muscat  vines  grafted 
on  resistant  stock.  The  cultural  conditions  also  affect  the  vine  in 
this  respect.  Vines  made  vigorous  by  rich  soil,  abundant  moisture, 
and  thorough  cultivation  require  longer  pruning  than  weaker  vines 
of  the  same  variety. 

The  normal  size  of  the  bunch  is  also  of  importance.  This  size 
will  vary  from  one-quarter  of  a  pound  to  two  or  three  pounds.  It 
is  difficult  to  obtain  a  full  crop  from  a  variety  whose  bunches  are 
very  small  without  the  use  of  fruit  canes.  Spurs  will  not  furnish 
enough  fruit  buds  without  crowding  them  inconveniently.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  shipping  grapes  may  bear  larger  crops  when 
pruned  long,  but  the  bunches  and  berries  may  be  too  small  for  the 
best  quality. 

The  possibilities  of  development  vary  much  with  various  varieties. 
A  Mission  or  Flame  Tokay  may  be  made  to  cover  a  quarter  of  an 


FIG.    290— FORMS    OF    HEAD    PRUNING    OF    GRAPES 

a,  Spur  pruning  with   high  trunk;   b,  spur  pruning  with  medium  trunk;  c,  half-long 
pruning   with   medium   trunk. 

acre  and  develop  a  trunk  4  or  5  feet  in  circumference.  A  Zinfandel 
vine  under  the  same  conditions  would  not  reach  a  tenth  of  this  size 
in  the  same  time.  Vines  in  a  rich  valley  soil  will  grow  much  larger 
than  on  a  poor  hillside.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  trunk  must  be 
modified  accordingly  and  adapted  to  the  available  room  or  number 
of  vines  to  the  acre. 


350  PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

The  shape  must  be  such  as  to  protect  the  vine  as  much  as  pos- 
sible from  various  unfavorable  conditions.  A  variety  like  the  Carig- 
nane,  susceptible  to  oidium,  must  be  pruned  so  fruit  and  foliage  are 
not  unduly  massed  together.  Free  exposure  to  light  and  air  is  a 
great  protection  in  this  respect.  The  same  is  true  for  varieties  like 
the  Muscat,  which  have  a  tendency  to  "coulure"  if  the  blossoms  are 
too  moist  or  shaded.  In  frosty  locations,  a  high  trunk  will  be  a  pro- 
tection, as  the  air  is  always  colder  close  to  the  ground. 

The  qualities  required  in  the  crop  also  influence  our  choice  of  a 
pruning  system.  Even  with  wine  grapes,  perfect  ripening  and  full 
flavor  are  desirable.  These  are  obtained  best  by  having  the  grapes 
at  a  uniform  height  from  the  ground  and  as  near  to  it  as  possible. 
The  same  qualities  are  desirable  in  raisin  grapes,  with  the  addition 
of  large  size  of  the  berries.  With  shipping  grapes,  the  size  and 
perfection  of  the  berries  and  bunches  are  the  most  essential  char- 
acteristics. The  vine,  therefore,  should  be  so  formed  that  each 
bunch  hangs  clear,  free  from  injurious  contact  with  canes  or  soil 
and  equally  exposed  to  light  and  air. 

The  maximum  returns  in  crop  depend  on  the  early  bearing  of 
young  vines,  the  regularity  of  bearing  of  mature  vines  and  the 
longevity  of  the  vineyard.  These  are  insured  by  careful  attention 
to  all  the  details  of  pruning,  but  are  possible  only  when  the  vines 
are  given  a  suitable  form. 

The  running  expenses  of  a  vineyard  depend  in  a  ja^reat  measure  on 
the  style  of  pruning  adopted.  Vines  of  suitable  form  are  cultivated, 
pruned  and  the  crop  gathered  easily  and  cheaply.  This  depends  also 
both  on  the  form  of  vine  adopted  and  on  care  in  details. 

It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  state  for  any  particular  variety  or 
any  particular  location  the  best  style  of  pruning  to  be  adopted.  All 
that  can  be  done  is  to  give  the  general  characteristics  of  the  variety 
and  to  indicate  how  these  may  be  modified  by  grafting,  soil  or 
climatic  or  other  conditions.  The  most  important  characteristics 
of  the  variety  in  making  a  choice  of  a  pruning  system  is  whether  it 
normally  or  usually  requires  short,  half-long,  or  long  pruning.  With 
this  idea,  the  principal  grapes  grown  in  California,  together  with  all 
those  grown  at  the  experiment  station  on  which  data  exist,  have 
been  divided  into  five  groups  in  the  following  list  : 

/.  Varieties  which  require  long  pruning  under  all  conditions. — 
Clairette  Blanche,  Corinth  White 'and  Black,  Seedless  Sultana,  Sul- 
tanina  White  (Thompson's  Seedless)  and  Rose. 

2.  Varieties  which  usually  require  loin/  pruning. — Bastardo,  B««al 
de  Madeira,  Chardonay,  Chauche  Gris  and  Noir,  Colombar,  Crabbe's 
Black  Burgundy,  Durif,  Gamais,  Kleinberger,  Luglienga,  Marsannc, 
Marzemino,  Merlot,  Meunier,  Muscaclelle  de  Bordelais,  Nebbiok), 
Pagadebito,  Peverella,  Pinots,  Rieslings,  Robin  Noir,  Rulander. 
Sauvignon  Blanc,  Semillon,  Serine,  Petite  Sirah,  Slancatnenca,  Su-in- 
schiller,  Tinta  Cao,  Tinta  Madeira,  Trousseau,  Verdelho,  TV-tit  Vor- 
dot,  Walchriesling. 


GRAPE   PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  351 

3.  Varieties  which  usually  require  short  pruning. — Aleatico,  Ali- 
gote,  Aspiran,  Bakator,  Bouschets,  Blaue  Elbe,  Beba,  Bonarda,  Bar- 
barossa,   Catarattu,   Charbono,   Chasselas,   Freisa,   Frontignan,   Fur- 
mint,  Grand  Noir,  Grosseblaue,  Green  Hungarian  Malmsey,  Mantuo, 
Monica,  Mission,  Moscatello  Fino,  Mourisco  Branco,  Mourisco  Preto, 
Negro   Amaro,    Palomino,    Pedro   Zumbon,    Perruno,    Pizzutello    di 
Roma,    Black    Prince,    West's    White    Prolific,    Quagliano,    Rodites, 
Rozaki,  Tinta  Amarella,  Vernaccia  Bianca,  Vernaccia  Sarda. 

4.  Varieties  which  require  short  pruning  under  all  conditions. — 
Aramon,    Burger    Chardonay,    Chauche   Gris   and    Noir,    Colombar, 
Crabbe's  Black  Burgundy,  Durif,  Black  Morocco,  Mourastel,  Muscat 
of  Alexander,  Napoleon,  Picpoule  Blanc  and  Noir,  Flame  Tokay, 
Ugni  Blanc,  Verdal,  Zinfandel. 

5.  Varieties  of  table  grapes  which  usually  require  half-long  or 
cordon  pruning. — Almeria  (Ohanez),  Bellino,  Bermestia  Bianca  and 
Violacea,  Cipro  Nero,  Dattier  de  Beirut,  Cornichon,  Emperor,  Black 
Ferrara,  Malaga,  Olivette  de  Cadenet,  Pis-de-Chevre  Blanc,  Schirad- 
zouli,  Zabalkanski. 

These  lists  must  not  be  taken  as  indicating  absolutely  for  all 
cases  how  these  varieties  are  to  be  pruned.  They  simply  indicate 
natural  tendencies.  Certain  methods  and  conditions  tend  to  make 
vines  more  fruitful.  Where  these  occur,  shorter  pruning  than  is 
indicated  may  be  advisable.  On  the  other  hand,  other  methods  and 
conditions  tend  to  make  the  vines  vigorous  at  the  expense  of  fruit- 
fulness.  Where  these  occur,  longer  pruning  may  be  advisable. 

The  more  usual  factors  which  tend  toward  fruitfulness  are : 
Grafting  on  resistant  vines,  especially  on  certain  varieties  such  as 
those  of  Riparia  and  Berlandieri ;  old  age  of  the  vines ;  mechanical 
or  other  injuries  to  any  part  of  the  vine;  large  development  of  the 
trunk,  as  in  the  cordon  systems.  The  more  usual  factors  which  tend 
toward  'vigor  at  the  expense  of  fruitfulness  are :  Rich  soil,  especially 
large  amounts  of  humus  and  nitrogen;  youth  of  the  vines;  excessive 
irrigation  or  rainfall  (within  limits). 

In  deciding  what  system  of  pruning  to  adopt,  all  these  factors, 
together  with  the  nature  of  the  vine  and  the  uses  to  which  the  fruit 
is  to  be  put,  must  be  considered.  It  is  best  when  the  vineyard  is 
started  to  err  on  the  side  of  short  pruning.  While  this  may  diminish 
slightly  the  first  one  or  two  crops,  the  vines  will  gain  in  vigor  and 
the  loss  will  be  made  up  in  subsequent  crops.  If  the  style  of  pruning 
adopted  results  in  excessive  vigor  of  the  vines,  it  should  be  gradually 
changed  in  the  direction  of  longer  pruning  with  the  object  of  utiliz- 
ing this  vigor  in  the  production  of  crop.  This  change  should  be 
gradual,  or  the  risk  will  be  run  of  injuring  the  vitality  of  the  vines 
by  one  or  two  excessively  heavy  crops. 

Finally,  each  year  the  condition  of  the  individual  vine  should  de- 
termine the  kind  of  pruning  to  be  adopted.  If  the  vine  appears 
weak,  from  whatever  cause,  it  should  be  pruned  shorter  or  given 
less  spurs  or  fruit  canes  than  the  year  before.  On  the  contrary,  if 


352  PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

it  appears  unnecessarily  vigorous,  more  or  longer  spurs  or  fruit 
canes  should  be  left.  Every  vine  should  be  judged  by  itself.  It  is 
not  possible  to  give  more  than  general  directions  for  the  pruning  of 
the  whole  vineyard.  It  cannot  be  well  pruned  unless  the  men  who 
do  the  actual  pruning  are  capable  of  using  sufficient  judgment  to 
modify  their  methods  properly  for  each  individual  vine. 

264.  Grapes  under  glass. — Only  the  European  grape  is 
grown  under  glass.  Two-year-old  vines  are  planted  in- 
side the  houses  a  foot  or  two  from  the  outer  walls,  cut 
back  to  two  or  three  buds  and  tied  to  iron  brackets  at- 
tached to  the  rafters  so  the  trunks  will  be  not  less  than 
a  foot  from  the  glass.  Only  the  strongest  shoot  is  al- 
lowed to  grow.  Two  systems  of  pruning  are  in  vogue, 
the  spur  and  the  long  cane  or  long  rod  system.  The 
former  is  perhaps  the  more  popular. 

In  the  spur  system,  when  the  tip  reaches  the  top  of 
the  house  it  is"  pinched.  The  cane  then  fills  out  and 
stores  food  in  lateral  buds  till  the  winter  sets  in,  when 
it  is  cut  back  two-thirds  and  covered  on  the  ground  until 
spring.  Since  mice  eat  the  buds  they  should  be  kept  out 
of  the  house.  In  the  second  spring  the  canes  are  tied 
up  and  the  leader  shoot  trained  to  the  top  of  the  house 
and  there  pinched.  No  fruit  is  allowed  to  develop  on  this 
shoot.  On  the  older  cane  each  second  lateral  on  each 
side  is  removed  so  the  remaining  ones  may  be  a  foot  or 
15  inches  apart.  This  favors  even  distribution  of  the 
crop  from  bottom  to  top. 

As  a  partial  crop  may  be  gathered  the  second  season 
from  the  older  part  of  the  vine  the  laterals  should  carry 
not  more  than  one  clusterand  should  bepinched  (217.21^ 
at  two  nodes  beyond  the  cluster.  The  sub-laterals  should 
be  pinched  when  they  have  developed  one  or  two  U  a\  es, 
Just  before  winter  the  terminal  shoot  should  be  cut  about 
half  way,  the  side  ones,  all  but  one  bud,  close  to  the  main 
stem  (often  within  the  first  quarter  inch)  and  the  vines 
covered  as  before. 

In  the  third  season  the  pruning  and  pinching  are  re- 
peated, the  laterals  being  allowed  to  bear  about  a  pound 


GRAPE   PRUNING   AND  TRAINING  353 

of  grapes  to  the  foot  of  main  cane.  After  this  year  the 
only  pruning  is  that  of  the  laterals,  the  main  trunk  hav- 
ing reached  the  top  of  the  house.  Mature  vines  may  bear 
two  pounds  of  grapes  to  the  foot,  but  there  is  risk  of 
overdoing  this  and  having  the  grapes  turn  sour  before 
getting  ripe.  Frequent  pinching  the  laterals  and  sub- 
laterals  is  essential  to  success.  This  work  should  be  done 
while  the  tips  are  so  small  that  all  the  pinchings  from  a 
vine  could  be  placed  in  a  lady's  watch  glass  and  vet  not 
fill  it! 

In  the  long  cane  system  a  new  cane  is  annually  de- 
veloped from  the  base  of  the  plant  to  replace  an  older 
one.  Well-established  vines  may  bear  fruit  from  end  to 
end  of  this  cane  its  first  year,  but  there  is  more  danger 
of  breakage  than  in  the  spur  system.  Laterals  are 
pinched  as  in  the  spur  system.  In  late  autumn  the  older 
cane  may  be  cut  close  to  the  ground  if  it  is  thought  to 
be  failing  and  the  new  one  laid  down  as  already  de- 
scribed. 


CHAPTER  XV 
PRUNING  ORNAMENTAL  SHRUBS  AND  TREES 

265.  Shade    trees  —  those    whose    flowers    are    incon- 
spicuous— rarely  receive  the  attention  they  deserve.  They 
are  planted  and  left  to  themselves  with  the  result  that 
they  develop  Y-crotches,  limbs  too  near  the  ground  (Fig. 
292)  or  too  high  up,  or  too  irregular  or  other  faults.    The 
same  principles  used  to  form  the  heads  of  fruit  trees  will 
apply  with  more  or  less  modification  to  the  development 
of  shade  tree  heads.    The  results  of  neglect  apparent  on 
every  hand  are  especially  noticeable  when  winter  storms 
load  the  branches  with  heavy  coatings  of  ice.     One   of 
these  storms  recently  more  or  less  seriously  broke  several 
score  of  shade  trees,  principally  Norway  maples,  on  the 
campus  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College.    Several  trees 
with    Y-crotches   were    thus   broken    down ;    and    many 
others  were  cracked  so  severely  that  another  such  storm 
will  break  them  because  of  the  activity  of  decay  that  has 
gained  entrance  through  the  cracks  then  formed  or  ex- 
tended from  previous  splitting.     Figure  94  shows  a  char- 
acteristic view  on  the  campus  just  after  the  storm.     The 
beauty  of  this  tree  has  been  ruined. 

Beyond  the  removal  of  dead,  dying  and  broken  parts 
and  the  occasional  shortening  of  too  rampant  or  too  1<>\\ 
hanging  branches,  shade  trees  properly  started  demand 
very  little  pruning.     The  time  required  to  give  the  tree- 
an   annual   inspection   will   be   well   spent,  for  it   should 
lead  to  the  adoption  of  measures  that  will  prevent  in- 
juries  which   if   incurred    might   be   ineffective    and    ex 
pensive. 

266.  A  good  hedge  depends  for  its  success  upon  the 
kind  of  plant,  the  thickness  of  the  planting,  the  choice  of 
form,  the  regular  periodic  attention  and,  to  a  less  extent. 

354 


PRUNING  ORNAMENTAL  SIIRUP.S  AND  TREES  355 

the  environmental  factors,  such  as  soil,  climate,  etc.  Un- 
less the  plant  be  adapted  to  the  style  of  training,  unless  a 
sufficient  number  of  plants  be  properly  set,  and  unless 
the  necessary  periodic  attention  be  given,  the  hedge  will 
be  a  more  or  less  gruesome  eyesore. 

There  is  no  use  trying  to  make  erect-growing  species 
of  plants  develop  flat-topped  hedges  nor  in  trying  to  force 
plants  that  normally  spread  to  adopt  an  erect  style  of 
growth.  The  rule  in  all  hedge  growing  should  be  to  ap- 
proach as  nearly  as  possible  the  natural  form  of  the 
plant.  To  the  author's  way  of  thinking  the  hedge  that 
demands  the  least  pruning  attention  is  the  one  that  will 
give  most  pleasure. 

The  Japanese  barberry  is  most  nearly  ideal  for  a  hedge 
up  to  6  or  8  feet  high ;  arbor  vitae  for  those  10  to  20  feet ; 
and  Norway  spruce  and  hemlock  for  taller  ones.  When 
these  are  allowed  to  grow  naturally  they,  none  of  them, 
require  more  attention  than  the  shortening  of  occasional, 
rampant  branches ;  but  when  forced  to  assume  unnatural 
forms  they  give  no  end  of  trouble,  besides  being  un- 
sightly. 

Unless  a  hedge  is  kept  uniform  and  even  in  height, 
thickness  and  development  its  beauty  will  be  impaired. 
To  attain  this  development  the  plants  must  be  set  very 
closely  and  be  pruned  intelligently  several  times  a  year — 
once  in  winter  and  two  or  three  times  during  the  grow- 
ing season.  When  a  definite  form  is  decided  upon  at  the 
start,  very  little  pruning  must  be  done  at  any  one  time. 
The  form  best  adapted  to  plants  of  more  or  less  erect 
habit  is  that  of  an  inverted  V  with  perhaps  a  slight  flat- 
tening of  the  apex  and  a  bulging  of  the  sides.  The  reason 
is  that  such  a  form  permits  all  of  the  branches,  even  the 
lowest,  an  opportunity  to  secure  light,  whereas  in  the  in- 
verted U  and  the  erect-sided,  flat-topped  styles  the  lower 
branches  become  more  shaded  as  the  plants  grow  older. 
The  result  is  that  the  lower  limbs  of  such  hedges  die  and 
thus  seriously  injure  the  appearance  of  the  whole  place. 


356  PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

No  hedge  will  continue  to  look  well  or  to  thrive  on 
only  one  pruning  a  year,  and  that  in  the  winter.  Shoots 
will  develop  a  heavy  growth  which  will  give  the  hedge 
a  frightened,  ragged  appearance,  and  the  longer  this  prac- 
tice is  followed  the  worse  will  be  the  results  and  the 
harder  to  make  proper  correction.  In  addition  to  the 
winter  pruning  the  new  growths  should  be  sheared  in 


FIG.  291— HORSE  CHESTNUT  CO-TERMINAL   BLOOM    BUD   EXPANDING 

Notice,  1,  that  the  direction  of  growth  has  been  slightly  changed  near  the  base 
of  the  new  growth  where  a  scar  indicates  that  a  fruit  was  borne  in  a  previous 
season;  2,  the  annual  growth  rings  at  the  bottom  of  the  picture;  3,  the  opposite 
leaves  and  the  terminal  cluster  of  bloom  buds. 


PRUNING  ORNAMENTAL  SHRUB^  AND  TREES 


357 


summer  two  or  three  times  whenever  their  development 
seems  to  demand  such  attention. 

In  America  hedges  are  going  out  of  fashion  as  stock 
fences,  mainly  because  they  make  unnecessary  demands 
upon  the  soil  and  because  many  of  them  (osage  orange 
especially)  are  breeders  of  insects  injurious  to  fruit  trees. 
Where  they  are  still  planted  for  such  purposes,  the  plants 
are  sometimes  pleached  while 
still  pliable  so  as  to  make  them 
more  difficult  to  get  through. 
To  get  best  results  from  this 
method  the  plants  are  set  ob- 
liquely in  the  soil  and  the  pri- 
mary stems  compelled  to  grow  at 
this  angle — usuallyabout45de- 
grees.  The  new  shoots  that 
develop  may  then  be  trained 
either  at  right  angles  to  the 
stems  which  bear  them  or  be 
allowed  to  grow  erect — that  is, 
at  right  angles  to  level  ground. 
In  either  case  the  secondary 
branches  cross  the  original  stems 
and  form  a  mesh,  more  especially 
near  the  bottom,  through  which 
even  pigs  cannot  force  their  way. 
Perhaps  the  honey  locust  is  the 
most  popular  plant  for  this  kind 
of  hedge. 

267.  Ornamental  shrubs  and  trees. — Pruning  orna- 
mental shrubs  and  trees  for  other  purposes  than  to  pro- 
mote the  formation  of  flower  beds  may  be  done  at  any 
time,  preferably  in  early  spring  or  early  summer,  since 
wounds  heal  better  during  the  growing  season  than  if 
made  in  fall  or  winter.  All  that  is  necessary  in  pruning 
for  form  is  to  restrain  the  too  rampant  growth  of  some 
parts  so  as  to  make  the  bush  symmetrical.  Such  pruning 


FIG.    292— SHADE   TREE 

HEADED    TOO    LOW 
Each   of  the  three  lowest   limbs 
should   be   cut,   because   they   will 
interfere  with  traffic  later. 


358 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 


does  not  imply  that  the  specimen  shall  be  clipped  or 
sheared  into  some  artificial  shape.  It  means  merely  keep- 
ing the  plant  within  bounds,  but  allowing  it  perfect  free- 
dom within  those  limits.  In  all  such  pruning  it  must  be 
remembered  that  each  shrub  has  its  own  peculiar  beauty 
— an  individuality  which  should  be  retained.  No  pruning 
which  destroys  this  beauty  should  be  practiced,  at  least 

where  there  is  no  defi- 
nite reason  for  so  doing 
— and  such  cases  are 
rare. 

When  it  is  necessary 
to  compel  the  plants  to 
take  fantastic  forms,  the 
young  growths  must  be 
sheared  several  times 
during  the  growing 
season,  as  well  as  once 
during  late  winter  or 
early  spring,  as  in  the 
case  of  hedges.  When 

exceptionally  good  feli- 
ne. 293-HUGE  WOUND  WELL  MADE  js  ^^  ^  ^  n^_ 
There  is  no  excuse  for  such  enormous  f  , 

wounds  as  this.  Had  the  limb  been  cut  off  sary  to  Cllt  back  the 
when  the  tree  was  small  such  a  cut  could  ,  ,1 

have    been    avoided!      The    limb    was    so    low  annual      growths      rather 

i»   interfered  with   traffic.      Hence    its   removal.  ft-^«1,r    f/^^rarrl     cr»rintr    co 

The   knife   shown  is  6$4    inches  long.     Notice  treelV    toward    Spring    J 

the*  sides  w°und  's  heaHng  most  rap5dly  from      as  to  encourage  the  for- 
mation  of   wood    (83). 

When  flowers  are  sought,  special  note  must  be  made  of 
the  blossom-bearing  habit  of  the  plant.  A  few  funda- 
mental rules  will  aid  the  pruner  to  make  a  success  of  this 
kind  of  work.  When  sturdy  branches  are  pinched  or 
clipped  back  during  summer  the  remaining  wood  will 
ripen  much  more  fully  than  might  be  the  case  if  they 
were  allowed  to  grow  naturally.  So  the  parts  should 
stand  the  winter  better  than  if  unpruncd.  This  applies 
more  especially  to  semi-hardy  and  tender  trees  and 


PRUNING  ORNAMENTAL  SHRUBS  AND  TREES 


359 


shrubs.  Summer  pinching  or  clipping  is  of  special  use 
during  wet  seasons  and  when  the  plants  are  over-supplied 
with  nitrogenous  plant  food,  both  of  which  tend  to  pro- 
duce lush  growths,  which  continue  to  develop  late  in  the 
season,  but  do  not  ripen  fully  before  winter  sets  in.  Such 
wood  being  succulent  is  sure  to  be  killed  during  winter. 
It  also  tends  to  keep  the  trees  and  shrubs  low-headed 
and  to  develop  fruit  buds,  as  already  noted. 


FIG.  294— HOW  TO  FORCE  PEACH  BUDS  TO  DETERMINE  THEIR  CONDITION 
The  twigs  are  placed  in  water  in  a  warm  room  during  late  winter.  Twigs  from 
trees  that  had  made  a  large  growth  one  summer  because  of  having  been  headed 
back  severely  in  the  spring  of  the  previous  year  gave  only  28.3  per  cent  of  bloom 
when  forced  thus  in  December,  while  trees  which  made  a  smaller  growth  (not 
headed  back)  gave  44.3  per  cent.  This  shows  that  the  resting  period  ends  earlier 
on  trees  making  smaller  growth. 

268.  When  ornamentals  form  blossom  buds. — 'Shrubs 
and  trees  which  bloom  in  the  spring  develop  their  flowers 
from  resting  buds  formed  during  the  previous  summer. 
As  in  the  case  of  fruit  trees  the  buds  are  protected  by  va- 
rious devices,  such  as  thickened,  woolly  and  waxy  bud 
scales.  The  fact  that  the  flowers  are  in  rudimentary 
form  and  are  ready  to  open  under  favorable  conditions 
may  be  proved  by  placing  twigs  of  "pussy"  willow,  peach 
(Fig.  294),  forsythia  (Fig.  295)  and  other  very  early 


360 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  IMU'NIXC 


bloomers  in  water  in  a  warm  room  during  winter.     In  a 
few  days  to  a  few  weeks  the  buds  will  burst  into  bloom. 

The  first  rule  of  pruning  flowering  shrubs  and  trees  is 
based  on  this  habit  of  bloom  production.  If  the  branches 
are  cut  back  severely  in  autumn,  winter  or  early  spring, 
a  large  proportion  of  the  blossom  buds  will  thus  be  de- 
stroyed. In  cases  of  severest  cutting  few  or  no  flowers 

may  be  produced, 
partly  because  of 
their  removal  and 
partly  because  the 
bush  or  tree  will 
make  an  effort  to 
develop  new  wood 
(81,  83). 

The  converse  of 
this  practice  is  the 
cor  rect  method; 
namely,  pruning  im- 
mediately .after  the 
blossoming  s.eason 
haspassed.  Thus  the 
new  shoots  produced 
will  have  thebalance 
of  the  season  imvhich 
to  develop  new  shoots 
largely  from  buds 
near  the  bases  of  the 
branches,  and  upon 
these  shoots  abun- 
dance, of  blossom 
buds  will  form  and  make  a  splendid  display  the  following 
spring. 

Shrubs  and  trees  of  the  second  group — althaea,  hy- 
drangea, clematis,  elder  and  certain  roses — which  bloom 
in  summer  and  autumn,  form  their  blossom  buds  on 
growths  of  the  present  season.  Since  some  of  these  are 


FIG.  295— GOLDEN  BELL— FORSYTHIA 
One  of  the  earliest  spring  blooming  shrubs. 
Note  that  the  branch  buds  are  only  just  starting. 
In  some  cases  they  are  opposite  the  flowers,  in 
others  terminal,  and  in  still  others  opposite  each 
other  near  the  terminal  buds.  Several  flowers 
were  cut  from  each  of  these  twigs  so  the  details 
would  show  in  the  picture. 


FIG.  296— CO-TERMINAL  METHOD  OF  BLOOM  BEARING— WEIG  ELI  A 

The  over-wintering  buds  develop  short  shoots  in  spring  and  these  bear  the  blossoms. 

Contrast  with  Judas  tree  (Fig.  297). 


362 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 


tender  to  frost,  some  pruners  leave  them  untouched  until 
spring,  others  give  a  preliminary  pruning  in  the  fall, 
protect  the  plants  with  mulches  and  give  the  final  prun- 
ing in  spring  when  the  winterkilled  stubs  may  be  cut  off. 
This  encourages  the  development  of 
strong  and  numerous  shoots  which  bear 
abundance  of  flowers  in  due  season. 

To  sum  up  the  thought  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraphs,  the  general  rule  for 
both  cases  may  be  expressed  in  three 
words:  PRUNE  AFTER  FLOWER- 
ING. This  means  that,  for  flowers,  the 
spring-blooming  subjects  should  be 
pruned  within  a  week  of  the  fall  of  the 
blossoms;  in  the  case  of  the  summer 
bloomers,  that  the  work  may  be  done 
either  in  the  autumn  or  at  latest  just 
before  growth  starts  in  the  spring. 

Plants  properly  pruned  when  trans- 
planted, given  good  soil  and  sufficient 
food  to  make  them  grow  well,  and 
ample  space  in  which  to  develop  into 
good  forms  often  need  some  pruning 
other  than  that  already  described ; 
namely,  they  may  need  to  have  their 
interiors  opened  up  to  admit  light  and 
air.  This  may  usually  be  done  by  cut- 
ting out  old  center  stems.  Of  course, 
any  dead  or  dying  wood  should  also  be 
removed  as  soon  as  noticed.  Except 
for  such  work,  little  more  may  be 
necessary  than  the  occasional  repres- 
sion of  a  rampant  growth. 

269.  Evergreens. — With  respect  to 
evergreens,  the  one  rule  to  bear  in 
mind  is :  Postpone  pruning  until  the 
spring,  since  the  danger  from  drying- 


FIG.  297  —  RED  BUD 
Blossom  b  u  d  t  of 
the  Judas  tree  or  red 
bud  (C  e  r  c  i  s)  are 
borne  almost  sessile 
on  the  branches  in 
spring  before  the  leaf 
buds  have  expanded 
to  any  extent.  What 
folly  to  prune  any  but 
dead  wood  out  of  such 
a  tree  after  midsum- 
mer I 


PRUNING  ORNAMENTAL  SHRUBS  AND  TREES  363 

i.  at  is  greater  than  in  the  case  of  deciduous  subjects. 
March  is  perhaps  the  best  month  in  which  such  pruning 
should  be  done  in  the  southern  half  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  April  in  the  northern  half,  because 
growth  is  usually  strong  during  the  next  six  to  eight 
weeks  and  the  healing  of  wounds  will  progress  rapidly. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
DWARF  TREE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 

270.  Dwarf  trees,  those  small  growing  varieties  of  a 
species,  are  considered  desirable  mainly  because  they 
require  less  space  than  do  the  normal-sized  ones.  There 
is  no  difficulty  in  maintaining  dwarfness  in  the  dwarf 
varieties — those  that  are  dwarf  by  nature.  They  simply 
do  not  grow  larger  than  their  normal  size  and,  there- 
fore, do  not  require  special  treatment  to  keep  them  small. 
But  there  is  another  group  —  the  plants  that  must  be 
specially  handled  to  make  them  dwarf  in  the  first  place 
and  then  specially  handled  to  keep  them  small.  The 
most  extreme  cases  of  this  kind  are  produced  by  special 
cultural  methods  practiced  by  the  Japanese,  who  compel 
trees  which  in  nature  attain  considerable  size  to  grow 
for  many  years  in  flower  pots  far  smaller  than  would  be 
required  to  hold  the  roots  of  a  plant  of  the  same  species 
if  transplanted  from  the  open  ground  at  the  close  of  even 
its  first  growing  season.  The  methods  by  which  this  is 
done,  however,  do  not  concern  us  here,  as  they  are  cul- 
tural rather  than  dependent  upon  pruning. 

The  plants  that  do  concern  us  are  those  individuals 
which  normally  grow  large  but  which,  by  means  of  graft  - 
age,  top  and  root  pruning  are  compelled  to  be  small  to 
suit  our  convenience  or  caprice.  In  order  to  understand 
how  these  should  be  handled  to  keep  them  small,  it  may 
be  well  to  quote  the  following  paragraphs  from  the  au- 
thor's book,  "Plant  Propagation."* 

Dwarfing  trees  to  be  grown  in  the  open  requires  that  cions  "r 
buds  be  worked  on  slow-growing  stocks  and  later  headed-in. 
Plants  may  also  be  dwarfed  by  growing  them  in  confined  quarters. 
such  as  boxes,  tubs  and  pots  too  small  for  their  normal  development. 
Nurserymen  can  go  no  further  than  supplying  the  specimens:  after- 

*  Page   195. 

364 


DWARF  TREE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  365 

care  depends  upon  the  grower,  who  by  neglect  or  ignorance  may 
develop  standards  from  those  intended  to  be  dwarfs. 

When  grafted  or  budded  "dwarfs"  are  planted  so  deeply  that 
roots  are  developed  by  the  cion  above  the  union  with  the  stock,  the 
tree  will  become  "half  dwarf"  or  even  "standard."  Such  roots 
must  be  cut  off  from  time  to  time  as  they  develop.  Dwarf  cherries 
are  grown  on  mahaleb  stocks,  but  so  is  probably  the  majority  of 
standard  cherry  trees.  Annual  removal  of  roots  from  the  cion  and 
heading-in  will  keep  the  trees  dwarf  in  habit.  So,  too,  of  plums 
upon  myrobalan,  and  apples  upon  Paradise  and  Doucin  stocks. 

Grafting  or  budding"  on  a  slow-growing  variety  or 
species,  then,  is  only  the  first  step  toward  the  making  of 
dw7arf  trees.  The  trees  must  have  the  expanse  of  their 
tops  restricted  by  pruning  and  training.  The  expanse  of 
their  roots  must  also  be  restricted  by  pruning  or  by 
keeping  them  confined  in  limited  space. 

Root  pruning  (87)  to  restrict  growth  is  little  practiced 
in  America.  Our  tillage  methods  largely  replace  it  be- 
cause they  compel  deep  rooting.  In  the  growing  of 
dwarf  trees  and  grafted  grapevines  it  finds  its  most  im- 
portant application  in  the  removal  of  roots  which  develop 
from  the  cion  above  the  union  with  the  stock. 

Top  pruning  of  dwarf  trees  is  done  to  train  the  tree 
in  some  special  way  and  to  restrict  growth.  The  latter 
is  a  winter  practice  for  the  most  part — heading  back 
(106).  Various  factors  influence  the  amount  of  such 
work — age,  vigor,  variety,  individuality  of  tree,  etc.  A 
terminal  growth  of  20  to  30  inches  is  common  in  the 
upper  parts  of  dwarf  pear  and  apple  trees,  especially  in 
those  under,  say,  ten  years  old.  Some  good  pruners  cut 
off  50  to  80  per  cent  of  the  annual  growth  all  over  the 
tree ;  and  also  remove  inferior  twigs  'entirely ;  others  cut 
out  a  total  of  fully  as  much  wood,  but  include  a  good  deal 
of  older  wood,  their  idea  being  thus  to  keep  the  tree  with- 
in bounds  rather  than  to  run  the  risk  of  getting  too  many 
small  stubby  twigs  as  might  be  the  case  were  the  former 
method  followed  too  closely.  In  the  former  case  the  tree 
is  more  likely  to  grow  too  large  than  in  the  latter.  In 
either  case  the  lateral  growth  that  develops  on  the  in- 


366  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

terior  of  the  tree  during  the  following  season  must  be 
thinned  at  the  next  pruning. 

Pruning  for  form  will  depend  upon  the  pruner's  ideal 
(2).  Dwarf  trees,  however,  are  generally  grown  as  flat- 
topped  inverted  cones  or  as  pyramids.  In  America  the 
former  is  the  more  popular;  in  Europe,  the  latter.  To 
secure  the  pyramidal  form  a  central  stem  is  developed  to 
the  desired  height.  The  branches  are  produced,  as  in  the 
training  of  standard  pyramids  (154b), except  that  they  are 
closer  together.  The  author  does  not  happen  to  know  of 
vase-formed  or  open-centered  dwarf  trees,  but  he  sees 
no  reason  why  this  form  should  not  be  as  desirable  for 
dwarf  pears  as  for  standards. 

While  the  trees  are  young  the  pyramidal  form  is  easy 
to  get,  especially  with  pears  which-  normally  grow  in  this 
way.  As  the  trees  grow  older,  however,  particularly  if 
the  grower  neglects  to  prune  off  the  cion  roots,  they  are 
prone  to  grow  very  tall,  their  form  in  long-neglected  trees 
much  resembling  that  of  the  Lombardy  poplar,  though, 
of  course,  much  smaller  than  the  full-grown  trees  of  this 
species.  This  heightening  may  be  easily  prevented,  first 
by  cion  root  pruning  and  second,  by  extending  the  frame 
limbs  and  broadening  the  top,  thus  developing  the  in- 
verted cone  shape.  In  the  most  famous  commercial 
dwarf  pear  orchard  the  author  has  visited  the  trees  were 
only  about  12  feet  high,  though  they  were  then  half  a 
century  old.  If  they  ever  got  any  taller  it  was  after  the 
death  of  Mr.  T.  G.  Yeomans,  the  owner,  who  took  special 
pride  in  keeping  them  in  ideal  form  and  stature.  Since 
the  Yeomans's  orchard*  was  trained  in  the  ideal  form  for 
American  commercial  dwarf  pear  growing,  and  since  it 
is  the  one  with  which  the  author  is  most  familiar  the  fol- 
lowing description  and  comment  are  given : 

*  This  orchard  at  Walworth,  New  York,  was  cut  down  in  1906  by  the  then 
owner  of  the  Yeomans's  farm,  and  Kieffer  pears  planted  on  the  site,  because  he 
thought  the  trees  had  passed  their  profitable  age  limit  and  he  believed  the  Kieffer 
would  pay  better.  The  original  orchard  began  to  yield  paying  crops  before  the  war 
of  the  States,  and  continued  to  do  so  as  long  as  Mr.  Yeomans  lived. 


DWARF  TREE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  367 

First  of  all,  decision  in  the  choice  of  trees  was  against 
one-year  stock  because  two-year-old  dwarf  pear  trees 
give  better  results.  One-year  trees  have  only  a  single  erect 
shoot  3  to  perhaps  5  feet  tall.  If  transplanted  at  this  age 
and  the  top  cut  back  severely  as  it  should  be  to  bal- 
ance the  loss  of  roots,  the  tree  will  be  so  weakened  that 
fewer  buds  (perhaps  only  two  or  three)  will  develop 
branches,  and  these  in  the  most  undesirable  position,  the 
top  of  the  stem,  both  on  one  side,  or  practically  opposite 
each  other  in  Y-crotch  form.  The  other  buds  will  remain 
latent  and  useless.  By  properly  handling  one-year  trees 
in  the  nursery  without  digging  and  then  allowing  them 
to  grow  a  second  season  a  full  complement  of  branches 
may  be  developed.  This  Mr.  Yeomans  was  able  to  do  to 
perfection  because  he  was  in  the  nursery  business  and 
grew  his  own  trees  from  grafts  he  made  himself.  As 
good  trees,  however,  may  be  bought  from  leading  nurs- 
erymen. 

In  the  nursery  the  one-year  trees  had  the  tops  of  their 
shoots  cut  at  21  to  24  inches  so  as  to  have  a  short, 
straight,  smooth  trunk,  and  of  about  12  inches  from  the 
ground  up  to  the  first  branch.  The  buds  on  this  lower 
part  of  the  stem  were  not  permitted  to  develop  shoots. 
Growths  which  started  from  them  were  rubbed  off  as 
early  as  possible.  Above  the  disbudded  part  six  or  eight 
plump  buds  usually  developed  branches,  because  all  the 
root  surface  was  intact  and  there  was  plenty  of  sap  to 
make  good  growth.  In  the  fall  the  tree  resulting  from 
such  treatment  would  be  sturdy,  have  plenty  of  branches 
to  choose  from,  be  of  good  shape  and  in  every  respect 
desirable. 

Y-crotches,  which  usually  form  in  the  two  uppermost 
branches,  were  avoided  by  pinching  the  twig  next  to  the 
top  when  it  attained  a  length  of  8  to  10  inches  (127). 
Thus  the  uppermost  braiTch  became  the  leader  and  the 
second  a  side  branch. 


368  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

When  transplanted  the  trees  were  two  years  old  from 
the  bud,  had  been  cut  back  in  the  nursery  row  at  one  year, 
had  formed  half  a  dozen  or  more  good  branches  without 
any  Y-crotches  and  had  excellent  root  systems.  In 
pruning  at  planting  time  the  uppermost  twigs  were  cut 
back  most  severely,  the  lowest  ones  least  because  growth 
is  greatest  in  the  upper  part  of  the  trees  (91).  Only  two 
buds  were  left  on  the  leader  and  the  next  branch  or  two, 
while  four  or  five  were  left  on  the  lowest.  This  treatment 
brought  the  leader  down  to  within  4  or  5  inches  of  its 
base  (the  two-year  wood). 

The  cut  on  the  leader  was  made  so  that  the  upper  bud 
was  immediately  above  the  cut  end  of  the  previous  year's 
stem.  Because  of  the  slight  crooks  formed  by  a  side  bud 
when  so  forced  into  growth  (Fig.  66)  the  new  branch 
from  this  upper  bud  was  developed  vertically  above  the 
original  trunk  of  which  it  thus  became  an  extension,  but 
with  two  slight  crooks.  These  crooks  disappeared  in  a 
few  years  and  the  trunk  looked  perfectly  straight.  In  a 
similar  way  branches  too  horizontal  were  slightly  raised 
by  pruning  back  to  upper  buds,  or  lowered  by  pruning  to 
buds  beneath.  Others  were  moved  to  the  side  by  prun- 
ing to  side  buds  (120d). 

When  finished,  the  branches  formed  pyramids  with 
bases  a  foot  to  15  inches  across  and  18  to  20  high  for  the 
larger  specimens.  By  cutting  in  this  way  not  only  was 
the  pyramidal  form  secured,  but  the  lower  branches  were 
favored  and  the  upper  ones  checked  in  developmnt.  Un- 
less this  is  done  at  the  time  of  setting  out,  the  trees  can 
never  be  made  to  take  the  desired  form. 

Pruning  after  the  first  year  resembles  that  of  the  first. 
The  leader  is  cut  back  severely  so  its  upper  bud  will  be 
above  and  in  continuation  of  the  main  stem,  and  the  lower 
and  side  shoots  cut  back  less  and  less  as  the  base  of  the 
pyramid  is  approached.  As  the  trees  approached  ma- 
turity, care  was  taken  to  admit  light  and  air  by  judicious 
thinning  and  removal  of  the  interior  shoots.  Except  the 


DWARF  TREE  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  369 

first  pruning  at  planting  time,  the  annual  cutting  was 
done  during  the  dormant  season  at  any  time  before 
growth  started  in  the  spring. 

As  the  trees  became  aged — 15  to  25  years — the  method 
of  pruning  gradually  flattened  and  broadened  the  tops, 
and  the  nature  of  growth  gradually  lessened  wood  pro- 
duction below,  so  that,  when  the  author  saw  them,  each 
tree  was  like  an  equilateral  triangle  set  on  its  apex  with 
its  trunk  as  a  pedestal.  The  tops  were  10  or  12  feet 
across,  and  the  height,  including  the  trunk,  about  12  feet. 
The  result  was  that  the  top  of  the  orchard  looked  as  if 
cut  with  a  huge  lawn  mower,  it  was  so  even  in  height  and 
the  trees  so  wide-spreading  as  almost  to  present  a  con- 
tinuous carpet  of  green,  except  for  narrow  blank  spaces 
between  the  trees  and  in  the  centers  between  the  squares 
formed  by  each  four  trees.  In  the  handling  of  dwarf 
apples,  cherries  and  other  fruits  the  same  general  rules 
apply. 

Because  of  considerable  agitation  on  the  part  of  certain 
fruit  growers  and  nurserymen,  the  fruit  growers'  associa- 
tions of  New  York  requested  the  experiment  station  at 
Geneva  to  conduct  experiments  in  the  growing  of  such 
trees  in  orchards  of  commercial  size.  An  experiment  was 
therefore  carried  out  during  ten  years  in  three  different 
parts  of  the  state  and  the  findings  reported  in  Bulletin  406 
of  the  station.  In  the  main  the  report  is  unfavorable  to 
dwarf  apple  trees  as  a  business  proposition. 

271.  Pruning  dwarf  apples.— We  may  as  well  confess,  writes 
U.  P.  Hedrick  concerning  these  experiments,  that  the  pruning  of 
these  trees  has  been  most  unsatisfactory.  A  bad  start  was  made, 
as  the  trees,  for  the  most  part,  were  cut  to  whips  at  transplanting 
time.  No  doubt,  in  the  light  of  later  experience,  it  would  have  been 
better  to  grow  them  in  nursery  rows  a  year  longer  and  then  make 
the  start  toward  forming  the  heads  (270).  The  trouble  in  cutting  a 
whip  at  transplanting  time  is  that  branches  fail  to  break  forth  as 
abundantly  as  they  do  in  the  nursery  row  unchecked  by  transplanting. 

Summer  pruning,  supplementing  winter  pruning,  is  part  of  the 
recognized  .yearly  treatment  of  dwarf  trees.  The  more  it  is  desired 


370  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

to  restrict  the  growth,  the  greater  the  need  of  summer  pruning 
and  the  greater  the  amount  necessary.  There  is,  however,  much 
divergence  of  opinion  as  to  methods  in  summer  pruning.  Scarcely 
any  two  authorities  on  growing  dwarf  trees  agree  as  to  the  amount 
of  wood  to  be  taken  out  or  the  proper  time  to  do  the  work. 

Some  growers  use  the  knife  and  shears,  while  others  say  that 
pinching  back  with  finger  and  thumb  suffices.  All  agree  that  the 
practice  must  be  largely  regulated  by  season,  soil,  health  of  tree, 
age  of  tree  and  the  variety.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  laying 
down  rules  that  would  be  fair  in  this  comparative  test  of  26  va- 
rieties of  apples  on  three  stocks,  three  distinct  soils  and  in  three 
somewhat  different  climates,  are  patent  to  anyone  who  has  tried 
to  prune  in  the  summer. 

The  winter  pruning  of  the  trees,  though  more  difficult  than  in 
training  standard  trees,  gave  comparatively  little  trouble.  It  con- 
sisted of  cutting  out  crossed  branches,  surplus  branches  and,  of 
course,  such  few  as  were  injured  or  diseased.  It  was  necessary 
to  head  back  the  wood  on  Paradise  and  Doucin  trees  more  severely, 
depending  upon  the  variety  rather  than  on  the  standards,  otherwise 
the  pruning  was  much  the  same  on  all. 

For  the  first  two  seasons  but  little  summer  pruning  was  attempted, 
the  trees  being  small  and  none  too  vigorous.  Then  began  a  series 
of  experiments,  no  one  of  which  proved  satisfactory.  Suffice  to 
say,  in  the  light  of  ten  seasons'  work  with  dwarf  apples,  the  train- 
ing of  the  plants  is  the  most  difficult  and  the  least  satisfactory 
operation  in  growing  these  trees.  Indeed,  it  is  hardly  too  much  to 
say  that  if  dwarf  apples  must  be  headed  back  or  pinched  in  during 
the  growing  season,  it  is  impossible  to  grow  them  in  the  trying 
climate  of  New  York. 

In  no  one  of  the  attempts  at  summer  pruning  have  we  been  able 
wholly  to  avoid  weak,  spindling  second  growths  which  would  not 
mature  and  succumb  to  the  cold  of  the  next  winter.  When  it 
was  thought  that  reasonable  success  in  time  and  manner  of  summer 
pruning  had  been  attained  one  season,  sooner  or  later  identical 
treatment  proved  a  failure  because  of  some  decided  difference  in 
weather  when  the  work  was  repeated.  \Ye  have  been  forced  to  con- 
clude that  the  great  variations  in  temperature  and  moisture  in  the 
summer  and  the  cold  winters  in  New  York  almost  or  quite  debar 
the  summer  pruning  practiced  in  the  Old  World. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
ODD  METHODS  OF  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING 

The  principles  and  some  of  the  practices  discussed  in 
previous  chapters  find  bizarre  application  in  special 
modes  of  training,  which  in  America  have  practically  no 
commercial  use.  Hence  almost  the  only  attention  they 
attract  is  that  of  amateurs,  in  which  class  of  gardeners  is 
included  those  wealthy  people  who  take  pleasure  growing 
extra  choice  specimens  of  fruit,  especially  if  these  are 
produced  under  glass,  upon  walls,  or  by  specimen  plants 
trained  in  some  unusual  form. 

While  these  forms  are  immensely  popular  in  Europe 
where  land  is  costly  and  hand  labor  cheap,  they  are  not 
suited  to  other  continents  where  land  is  cheap  and  labor 
high  priced-,  as  in  America.  This  is  the  sufficient  answer 
for  their  comparative  rarity  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  Let  it  be  said,  however,  that  we  have  in  the 
longer-settled  parts  of  our  country  examples  of  these 
methods  which  compare  favorably  with  those  of  the  Old 
World.  Probably  a  majority  of  these  have  been  de- 
veloped under  the  skillful  fingers  of  some  French,  English 
or  Scotch  gardener  who  has  served  his  apprenticeship  in 
the  gardens  of  an  estate  in  the  Old  World.  The  three 
illustrations  (Figs.  298,  299,  300)  are  excellent  examples 
of  special  tree  training  in  gardens  in  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
could  be  found  many  others. 

In  order  to  make  a  success  of  any  of  these  special  forms 
of  growing  trees  and  shrubs,  it  is  essential  to  make  a 
proper  start.  European  nurserymen  do  this.  They  grow 
the  trees  two,  three  or  more  years  under  the  constant 
watchfulness  of  men  skilled  each  in  his  own  line.  All 
that  a  customer  need  to  do,  then,  is  to  order  the  style, 

371 


ODD    METHODS  OF   PRUNING   AND   TRAINING  373 

age  and  variety  of  plant  he  wants.  In  America  the  de- 
mand for  such  plants  is  so  nearly  nil  that  the  nurserymen, 
with  rare  exceptions,  do  not  carry  any  such  trees  in  stock. 
Many  of  them,  however,  will  develop  such  plants  to  order. 
But  why  should  the  amateur  not  develop  them  himself? 
He  can  probably  command  at  least  as  good  skill  and  in 
many  cases  far  better  at  home  because  of  personal  in- 
terest in  the  plants.  How  shall  he  start? 

It  will  be  well  whenever  possible  to  do  the  propaga- 
tion 'at  home,  so  as  to  have  the  plants  under  ideal  condi- 
tion fa>m  the  start.  In  perhaps  no  case  should  trees  older 
than  one  year  be  chosen  for  any  of  these  special  forms 
of  training.  If  the  trees  have  been  propagated  at  home, 
they  need  not  suffer  in  the  least  from  digging  because 
they  may  be  left  during  the  second  year  where  they  grew 
the  first.  Note  the  reasons  for  this  under  the  heading 
Dwarf  Trees  (270).  Where  it  is  not  convenient  to  follow 
this  suggestion,  the  next  best  thing  is  to  buy  yearling 
trees.  Choice  should  be  made  among  the  medium-sized, 
well-grown  specimens,  the  large  and  the  small-sized 
grades  being  avoided  for  obvious  reasons.  The  main 
reason  for  choosing  yearling  trees  is  that  the  buds  on 
the  trunk  will  be  far  sturdier  than  on  trunks  two  years 
old  or  older  and  the  branches  may  be  developed  exactly 
where  wanted. 

The  height  to  have  the  trunk  and  the  number  of 
branches  to  develop  will  depend  upon  the  style  of  training 
to  be  .followed.  In  all  such  training  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  tree  is  being  forced  to  develop  in  a 
more  'or  less  unnatural  way  and,  therefore,  must  receive 
special  attention.  To  use  an  illustration,  these  methods 
are  like  teaching  school  children  to  write:  a  beautiful 
script  specimen  .is  set  before  them  and  they  attempt  to 
imitate  the  pretty  writing,  often  with  ludicrous  though 
unintentional  caricatures!  If  it  is  difficult  to  teach  in- 
telligent: children  so  simple  a  feat  as  writing,  how  much 
more  to  train  a  tree  in  the  way  it  should  go !  Success 


374 


PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF  PRUNINC, 


as  in  the  above  case  is  measured  by  the  approach  to  the 
original  design.  While  the  style  of  training  must  be 
optional  with  the  individual  gardener  the  fundamental 
principles  of  pruning  must  be  followed. 

As  American  literature  on  these  special  modes  of  train- 
ing is  very  meager,  and  as  European  writings  are  both 
voluminous  and  excellent,  the  following  passages  have 
been  culled,  mainly  from  French  and  English  works,  to 


FIG.  299— DWARF   PEAR  TREES  TRAINED  IN  SIMPLE  WAY 


ODD    METHODS  OF   PRUNING   AND  TRAINING  375 

serve  as  suggestions  of  forms  and  methods  that  may  be 
followed.  In  these  excerpts  the  following  words  need 
definition :  Cordon,  a  plant  consisting  of  one  shoot,  or 
two  trained  opposite  to  each  other,  and  bearing  fruit 
spurs.  A  palmette  is  a  single  vertical  stem  with  several 
side  branches.  Standard,  in  European  usage,  is  a  solitary 
trunk  not  attached  to  a  support.  It  is  not  a  synonym 
of  dwarf,  as  in  America.  Espalier,  a  trellis  or  any  plant 
grown  upon  a  trellis,  not  a  form  of  training.  The  modes 
of  training  described  below  enable  the  gardener  to  adapt 
trees  to  restricted  quarters,  to  have  each  main  branch  sup- 
plied with  bearing  wood  from  end  to  end,  to  equalize 
fruit-bearing  each  year  and  each  successive  year,  and  to 
enhance  both  size  and  quality  of  fruit. 

272.  General  principles  of  training.— Alphonse  Du  Breuil*  gives 
the  following  general  principles  for  training  fruit  trees  on  walls 
and  trellises.  The  numbers  indicate  individual  corollaries  under  the 
main  principles  printed  in  italics. 

A.  The  permanency  of  form  of  trained  trees  is  dependent  upon 
the  equal  diffusion   of  sap   being  maintained  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  branches. 

1.  Prune  strong  branches  short;  but  allow  weaker  ones  to  grow 
long.  2.  Depress  strong  parts,  and  elevate  weak  ones.  3.  Suppress 
useless  buds  on  strong  parts  as  early  as  possible.  Practice  sup- 
pression as  late  as  possible  on  leaf  parts.  4.  Suppress  herbaceous 
extremities  on  strong  parts  very  early,  but  practice  suppression 
as  late  as  possible  on  weak  parts,  taking  off  only  the  most 
vigorous  shoots  and  those  that  must  be  removed  because  of  the 
position  they  occupy.  5.  Nail  up  strong  parts  very  early  and 
very  close  to  the  wall  or  the  trellis,  but  delay  doing  so  to 
weak  parts.  6.  Suppress  several  leaves  on  strong  sides  [of  the 
plant].  7.  Allow  as  large  a  quantity  of  fruit  as  possible  to  remain 
on  the  strong  side  and  suppress  all  on  the  weak  side. 

8.  Soften  green  parts  on  the  weak  side  with  sulphate  of  iron 
solution — 24  grains  in  a  pint  of  water,  applied  after  sunset.  [This 
is  believed  to  stimulate  leaf  activity  "in  drawing  sap  from  the  roots." 
M.  G.  K.]  9.  Bring  weak  side  forward  from  the  wall ;  keep  strong 
side  close  to  it.  10.  Place  a  covering  on  a  strong  part  to  deprive  it 
of  light. 

B.  Sap  develops  branches  much  more  vigorously  on  a  branch  cut 
short  than  on  one  left  long  (Chapter  X,  106).     C.  Sap  has  always 
a  tendency  to  flow  toward  the  extremities  of  branches  and  to  make 
terminal    buds  develop    more  vigorously    than   lateral    ones   (91). 

*  The  Scientific   and  Profitable   Culture  of  Fruit  Trees,   English   edition. 


ODD    METHODS  OF   PRUNING   AND  TRAINING  377 

D.  The   more  sap   circulation   is  retarded  the   less  wood  and  the 
more  fruit  buds  will  develop  (98). 

1.  Apply  to  branches  which  grow  from  successive  extensions  of 
wood  and  also  to  those  which  spring  from  them,  operations  calcu- 
lated to  diminish  vigor.  2.  Apply  to  larger  branches  several  Girard- 
in's  side  grafts — cions  of  fruit  spurs  or  fruit  buds  set  into  twigs — 
to  absorb  part  of  the  superabundant  sap.  3.  Arch  all  branches  so 
part  of  their  extent  will  be  toward  the  sun.  4.  In  February  make 
an  annular  incision  1-5  inch  wide  with  a  hand  saw  near  the  stem 
base,  and  deep  enough  to  penetrate  the  exterior  wood  layer  (98). 
5.  In  spring  uncover  the  tree  collar  so  as  to  expose  the  principal 
roots  for  several  feet  and  allow  them  to  remain  thus  during  sum- 
mer. 6.  In  spring  cut  away  parts  of  roots  and  replace  the  earth. 
[These  two  practices  are  antagonistic. — M.  G.  K.]  1.  Transplant 
trees  in  late  autumn,  but  with  great  care  to  preserve  all  roots. 

E.  Every  method  which  conduces  to  diminish  rigor  of  wood  and 
to  make  sap  flow  to  the  fruit  tends  to  augment  size  of  fruit. 

1.  Graft  upon  stocks  of  a  less  vigorous  species  than  the  cions. 
2.  Apply  suitable  winter  pruning ;  that  is,  do  not  leave  on  the  trees 
more  branches  or  parts  of  branches  than  is  requisite  for  symmetrical 
development  and  formation  for  fruit-bearing  branches.  3.  Make 
fruit  spurs  grow  close  on  branches  by  pruning  them  as  short  as 
possible.  4.  Cut  branches  very  close  when  flower  buds  are  formed. 
.">.  Mutilate  summer  shoots  by  repeatedly  pinching  off  those  not 
required  to  develop  size  of  tree.  6.  When  fruits  are  a  fifth  developed 
suppress  a  further  number  of  them.  7.  Make  an  annular  incision 
about  1-5  inch  wide  upon  the  fruit-bearing  branches  when  these 
expand  their  blossoms.  8.  Insert  Girardin's  side  grafts  in  some  fruit 
branches  of  vigorous  trees.  9.  Place  supports  under  fruits  during 
growth  to  prevent  stretching  or  twisting  of  their  stalks.  If  unsup- 
ported, the  fruit  may  grow  unequally  and  the  stretching  or  twisting 
stalk  may  injure  the  sap  vessels.  When  fruits  are  supported  they 
grow  larger.  10.  Keep  fruits  in  their  normal  position  during  the 
entire  period  of  their  development ;  that  is,  with  the  fruit  stem 
lowermost.  Sap  acts  with  more  force  when  it  flows  upward;  a 
vertical  stalk  therefore  causes  it  to  ascend  more  easily  and  the  fruit 
will  become  larger.  11.  Place  fruit  under  the  leaves  during  their 
growth  to  increase  their  size.  12.  Apply  to  young  fruits  a  solution 
of  sulphate  of  iron  (272  A  8)  only  when  the  fruit  is  cool.  Repeat 
three  times:  When  fruits  are  one-fourth  grown;  when  a  little  larger ; 
and  again  when  three  parts  grown.  13.  To  increase  size  inarch  a 
small  shoot  on  the  fruit  spur,  to  which  fruit  is  attached  when  a  third 
grown. 

F.  The  yearly  extensions  of  wood  should  be  shortened  more  or 
less,  as  the  branches  approach  a  vertical  line,  or  tiie  contrary. 

273.  Construction  of  walls  and  fences.— J.  Cheal*  gives  some  ex- 
cellent advice  upon  the  construction  of  walls  and  fences  upon  which 

*  Practical   Fruit  Culture,  London. 


378  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

to  train  fruit  trees.  Paragraphs  (273  to  278)  are  quoted  from  his 
work.  The  arrangement  and  position  of  walls  will  depend  on  the 
size  and  the  nature  of  the  surroundings,  etc.,  but  they  should  always 
be  arranged,  if  possible,  in  a  square,  with  the  principal  wall  facing 
south,  or  as  nearly  so  as  practicable.  \\  here  it  is  possible,  place  the 
walls  so  the  outside  as  well  as  the  inside  borders  may  be  used  for 
fruit,  thus  making  use  of  the  whole  wall  space.  Bear  in  mind  that 
upon  the  north  side  many  useful  fruits  may  be  grown. 

The  height  of  the  walls  should  be  8  to  15  feet,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. In  most  cases  the  south  wall  may  be  lower,  to  admit 
more  sunshine  into  the  garden ;  and  in  the  case  of  large  gardens, 
one  or  more  cross  walls  may  also  be  introduced.  They  should  be 
built  without  piers.  Architects  have  generally  a  great  fancy  for 
piers,  and  in  many  instances  insist  upon  having  them ;  but  walls  can 
be  built  without  them,  and  they  are  always  a  great  difficulty  and 
nuisance  to  the  gardener.  They  frequently  interfere  with  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  trees  when  planting.  In  training  they  are  a  great 
trouble,  and  often  cause  much  damage  to  the  trees.  Provide  a  good 
permanent  coping  of  tiles  or  stone,  projecting  at  least  6  inches  from 
the  face  of  the  wall.  These  should  in  all  cases  be  provided  inde- 
pendently of  any  further  coping  for  the  protection  of  the  trees  at 
the  time  of  flowering. 

274.  Removable  glass  copings  are  very  useful  for  peaches,  nec- 
tarines and  apricots.  These  are  required  for  only  a  few  weeks  in 
spring,  at  the  time  of  blossoming  and  setting  the  fruit,  and  should  be 
removed  when  no  longer  required.  Fixed  glass  copings  are  very 
objectionable,  as  they  keep  off  all  rain,  encourage  red  spider  and 
other  vermin,  and  necessitate  constant  syringing. 

In  all  cases  it  is  a  great  saving  of  labor  to  wire  the  walls  or 
fences.  The  vines  should  be  placed  in  lines  not  exceeding  9  inches 
apart  and  2  inches  from  the  wall.  Galvanized  hold-fasts,  tighteners 
and  all  needful  appliances  are  easily  obtainable. 

275.  Tying  to  the  wire  is  much  more  quickly  done  than  nailing  to 
the  wall,  and  does  not  afford  the  same  shelter  to  insect  pests,  while 
it  preserves  the  wall  from  injury  due  to  constant  nailing,  and  allows 
the  wood  to  ripen  more  thoroughly  and  evenly.  The  branches  are 
also  enabled  to  form  fruit  spurs  and  buds  all  around.  Frequently 
the  inside  or  back  blossoms  escape  injury  from  frost,  which  damages 
the  outer  ones,  and  a  crop  is  thereby  saved. 

In  the  case  of  all  fruits,  however,  and  especially  that  of  peaches 
and  nectarines,  it  is  needful  to  be  very  careful  in  tying  in  order  to 
prevent  the  branch  coming  immediately  in  contact  with  the  gal- 
vanized wire.  Many  instances  have  occurred  of  disease  and  decay 
resulting  from  this.  There  is,  however,  no  danger  if  the  precaution 
is  always  taken  in  tying  to  cross  the  tie  between  the  branch  and  the 
wire,  so  the  branch  may  be  held  firmly  in  position  without  coming 
in  actual  contact  with  the  wire.  And  the  danger  may  be  still  further 
lessened  by  painting  the  wires  and  hold-fasts  after  fixing. 


ODD    METHODS   OF    PRUNING   AND   TRAINING  379 

276.  Espalier  fences  generally  may  be  placed  to  advantage   in  a 
kitchen   garden,   as   they   occupy   but   little   space,    and   produce   an 
abundance  of  tine  fruit.     They  may  be  used  as  a  border  near  the 
paths,  or  at  the  back  of  the  flower  border,  which  is  usually  arranged 
on  either  side  of  the  central  walk,  but  there  are  also  other  positions 
outside  the  kitchen  garden  where  they  can  be  placed  to  advantage. 
If  the  fruit  is  well  grown  such  fences  present  an  artistic  appearance 
(Fig.  300),  and  are  admissible  even  in  the  ornamental  garden,  or  myy 
be  used  as  a  division  between  the  ornamental  and  the  kitchen  garden. 

The  fences  themselves  are  usually  formed  of  galvanized  iron 
posts,  with  wires  stretched  between.  They  require  at  each  end  a 
strong  post  of  angle  iron  with  anchor  feet  and  stays,  to  bear  the 
strain  of  tightening  the  wire.  The  intermediate  posts  need  be  only 
flat  iron  with  anchor  feet.  For  the  ordinary  horizontal  form  of 
training,  5  to  6  feet  in  height  will  be  sufficient,  but  if  made  high 
enough — say  7  to  9  feet — these  fences  are  very  good  for  training 
cordons  upon.  Gooseberries  may  also  be  trained  upon  low  espalier 
fences  of  3  to  4  feet  in  height,  and  when  trained  as  double  cordons, 
or  as  palmettes  with  3  to  5  branches,  they  produce  the  finest  possible 
fruit;  and  this  mode  is  strongly  recommended  for  growing  the 
choice  dessert  varieties. 

277.  Wire  arches  may  sometimes  be  suitably  introduced  into  the 
kitchen  garden,  spanning  some  of  the  paths.     They  occupy  but  little 
ground  space,  and  afford  excellent  means  for  the  training  of  cordons. 
They  give  a  pleasant  shade  to  the  path,  trees  are  well  supported, 
and  the  fruit   spread  out  to  the   full  effect   of  the  sun.     In   some 
respects  they  are  better  for  training  the  cordon  trees  than  ordinary 
espaliers.    The  turn  at  the  top  gives  the  gentle  check  to  the  upright 
flow  of  sap  so  desirable  for  securing  fine  fruit  at  the  base  of  the  tree. 

278.  Wooden  fences  sometimes  are  so  placed  as  to  be  available 
for  fruit.     A  wooden  fence  is  in  no  case  so  good  as  a  wall,  as  in 
the  best  of  them  there  is  always  some  draft,  so  the  same  uniform 
temperature  is  not  maintained  as  in  the  case  of  walls  which,  from 
their  greater    substance,   retain   warmth   during  the   night.     Never- 
theless, wooden  fences  are  very  useful  for  fruit.  They  should  always 
be  wired  before  planting  the  trees,  as  it  is   difficult  to  nail  to  the 
wooden  fences,  while  wire  also  possesses  other  advantages. 

Many  wooden  fences  surrounding  the  gardens  of  suburban  villas 
might  be  turned  to  very  useful  account,  and  would  afford  the  over- 
wrought brain-worker  healthful  and  interesting  employment  in  cul- 
tiyating  fruit  trees,  as  well  as  enable  him  to  supply  his  own  tab'e 
with  the  freshest  of  fruit.  There  are  also  numberless  wooden  fences, 
as  well  as  walls,  in  many  of  our  farms  and  homesteads,  which  could 
be  turned  to  profitable  account  by  covering  them  with  fruit,  trained 
as  above  described. 

279.  The  pyramid*  is  an  old  and  good  form,  suitable  especially 
for   pear  trees.     Its   advantages   are,   that   it   can   be   cultivated    in 

*  D.  Bois,  "Le  Petit  Jardin,"  Paris,  264    (279  to  284). 


380  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

borders,  where  it  takes  up  relatively  little  room;  that  it  allows  free 
circulation  of  air  and  light;  that  it  casts  little  shade;  and  that  it 
bears  abundantly.  It  consists  of  a  principal  or  vertical  stem,  cov- 
ered with  lateral  branches  from  a  point  an  inch  or  so  above  ground 
to  the  top  of  the  tree.  The  branches,  which  grow  somewhat 
obliquely,  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  distance  of  about  10 
inches,  diminishing  gradually  in  length  from  bottom  to  top,  thus 
forming  a  cone,  the  largest  diameter  of  which  is  about  one-third 
of  the  total  height. 

280.  The  column  or  spindle.— This  form,  adapted  to   pears   and 
apple  trees,  has  the  advantage  of  taking  up   less   room   than  the 
pyramid  and  of  bearing  more  quickly.     On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not 
so  long-lived,  and  is  suitable  for  less  vigorous  varieties  only.     The 
column  differs  from  the  pyramid  only  in  its  shorter  lateral  branches. 

281.  The  vase. — Around  a  central  stem,  and  at  a  distance  of  about 
5  inches  above  the  ground,  arise  branches  which  grow  first  hori- 
zontally and  then  vertically,  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  to  the  entire 
tree  the  form  of  a  vase.    The  branches  must  be  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  distance  of  about  10  inches,  and  they  are  maintained  in 
this  position  by  tying  them  to  hoops  fastened  to  stakes  inserted  in 
the  ground.     This  form  is  justly  much  esteemed.     It  allows  a  free 
circulation  of  light  and  air  through  all  its  parts. 

282.  The  horizontal  cordon  Js  suitable  especially  for  apple  trees 
grafted  on   Paradise  stock,  and   to   the  less  vigorous  varieties  of 
pear  trees  grafted  on  quince  stock.     This  form  is  especially  to  be 
recommended  for  the  borders  of  walks.    It  consists  of  a  stem  which 
first  grows  vertically,   then  bent  at  a  certain  height,   and  is  main- 
tained in  this  horizontal  position  by  attaching  it  to  wire.    The  trees 
are  planted  at  a  distance  of  6  to  10  feet  apart  and  their  stems,  when 
meeting,  form  a  long,  unbroken  garland  or  wreath,  which  makes 
a  very  pretty  effect. 

283.  Espalier  training,  to  be  especially  recommended,  is  suitable 
for  all  kinds  of   fruit  trees.     It  allows  the  cultivation  of  varieties 
the  fruits  of  which  would  not  ripen  at  all,  or  would  ripen  incom- 
pletely in  a  more  exposed  situation.     When  trained  against  walls, 
they  receive  an   amount  of   heat   sufficient  to  produce   fruit  of   a 
superior  quality.     These  include  peaches,  grapes,   certain  kinds  of 
apricots,  apples,  pears,  etc.     The  simplest  form  of  espalier  is  the 
vertical  cordon,  which  allows  the  trees  to  be  planted  very  near  to- 
gether, which  soon  brings  in  a  moderate  return,  and  in  a  few  years 
covers  the  wall.     Like  the  column,  this  form  is  suitable  for  only 
the  less  vigorous  varieties.    It  must  be  trained  against  a  moderately 
high  wall,  for  its  growth  is  considerably  stimulated  by  the  suppres- 
sion of  its  lateral  branches,  so  the  principal  stem  has  a  tendency 
to  grow  rapidly.     Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  cut  them  back  very 
much,  it  produces  an  excessive  development  of  wood,  to  the  detri- 
ment  of  its   productiveness.     A    form  like  a  U  is    frequently  em- 
ployed.    It-  is  certainly  one  of  the  best. 

284.  The  candelabrum  is  formed  by  several  lateral  branches,  from 


ODD   METHODS  OF  PRUNING  AND   TRAINING  381 

three  to  six,  distributed  regularly  along  the  principal  stem.  The 
simple  palmette  or  palm  leaf  has  a  larger  number  of  lateral  branches. 
The  Palmette  Verrier  differs  from  the  preceding  only  in  the  fact 
that  after  a  certain  distance  its  branches  grow  vertically.  Palmettes 
are  formed  with  6,  7,  8,  10,  12  branches,  and  even  with  more. 

285.  The  horizontal  cordon  in  detail.* — When  grown  in  a  simple 
horizontal  cordon,  the  pear  tree  consists  of  a  stem  bent  at  a  dis- 
tance  of    15   inches    above   ground,   then   trained   horizontally    and 
covered    with    fruit-bearing    branches.      The    cordons    are    trained 
as  much  as  possible  toward  the  strongest  light.    If  the  plantation  is 
established  on  a  slope,  it  is  necessary  to  train  the  cordons  toward 
the  summit  of  the  slope.     Only  pears  grafted  on  quince  stock,  and 
apple  trees  grafted  on  Paradise  or  Doucin  stock,  can  be  thus  grown. 

Pear  trees  and  apple  trees  grafted  on  their  own  stock  are  too 
vigorous,  as  they  require  (for  otherwise  they  would  remain  sterile) 
more  room  than  the  horizontal  cordon  allows.  One-year-old  apple 
•cions  grafted  on  Paradise  stock  must  be  planted  at  a  distance  of  10 
feet  from  each  other.  One-year-old  apple  cions  grafted  on  Doucin 
stock,  and  pears  on  quince  stock,  must  be  planted  at  a  distance  of 
12  feet  from  each  other. 

The  first  year  they  are  cut  at  a  distance  of  about  2l/2  inches  above 
ground,  and  near  a  bud  located  on  the  side  toward  which  the  stem 
is  to  be  inclined.  In  the  autumn  or  in  the  following  spring,  these 
cions  are  gradually  bent.  But  if  the  part  beyond  the  bend  must 
be  strictly  horizontal,  it  is  necessary  that  the  extremity  of  the  cordon 
be  slightly  raised,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  flow  of  sap  and  con- 
sequently the  elongation  of  the  cordon. 

From  this  time,  the  yearly  growth  of  the  cordon  must  be  cut  in 
such  a  way  as  to  preserve  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  its  length. 
It  is  soon  covered  with  branches,  some  of  which  are  fertile  (that  is, 
bearing  fruit-producing  buds),  while  the  others,  or  sterile  ones, 
must  be  cut  away.  This  kind  of  treatment  prevents  them  from  ob- 
taining too  large  a  growth,  thus  still  more  destroying  their  fertility. 

286.  Cherry  growing  in  orchard  houses.f — The  method  of  growing 
cherries  in  Rivers's  orchard  houses  is  given  below  in  detail.     Most 
of  the  trees  are  grafted  on  cherry  stock,  except  the  Duke  cherries 
and  Early  Rivers  and  Governor  Wood,  which  are  grafted  on  mahaleb 
stock.    They  are  never  lifted  nor  replanted  before  potting. 

Early  in  autumn  one  and  two-year-old  trees  are  taken  up,  their 
roots  shortened  so  they  can  be  put  into  the  pots  without  breaking, 
and  planted  in  8  or  12-inch  pots.  This  potting  must  be  done  care- 
fully and  the  trees  must  be  set  so  deep  the  big  roots  near  the  sur- 
face will  be  covered  with  an  inch  of  soil.  Cover  the  bottom  of 
the  pots  with  a  good,  thick  layer  of  drainage.  The  soil  used  in 
potting  is  a  light,  sandy  loam,  enriched  with  one-third  of  well- 
decayed  fertilizer.  It  is  important  to  firm  the  soil  well  around 

*G.  Ad.  Bellair,  "Les  Arbres  Fruitiers,"  Paris,  1891,  Page   164   (285). 
f;A,  &.  Anderson  in  "American  Garden,"  XIII,  594   (286). 


FIG.  301— TREATED  INJURIES  NORMALLY  HEAL;  UNTREATED  ONES  DECAY 
A,  Cross  section  of  trunk,  showing  parts;  a,  heart- wood;  b,  sapwood;  c,  cam- 
bium; d,  bark;  et  corky  outer  bark.  B,  Scar  beginning  to  heal  rapidly  at  the  sides. 
C,  Scar  three-fourths  healed.  D,  Cross  section  of  "blaze"  on  quaking  aspen. 
Note  decay  at  ax  cut.  Line  indicates  proper  shape  of  cavity  to  excavate.  E,  Scar 
from  cut  limb  fully  healed.  F,  Opening  to  decayed  area  in  log.  Only  a  shell  of 
sound  wood. 


ODD  METHODS  OF  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  383 

and  among  the  roots.  Fill  it  in  by  degrees  and  beat  it  down  firmly 
all  through  the  pot,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  roots.  After  pot- 
ting, the  trees  are  set  in  a  sheltered  place  outdoors,  the  pots  being 
covered  with  leaves.  If  the  soil  is  moist  enough  when  the  trees  are 
potted,  they  will  not  need  watering. 

When  spring  comes  the  tree  must  be  thinned  out  and  the  pots 
plunged  one-third  their  depth  in  the  earth.  The  trees  remain  here 
all  summer,  are  watered  carefully  every  morning  when  the  weather 
is  bright  and  dry  and  syringed  with  pure  water  if  the  green  fly 
is  troublesome.  In  July  when  the  trees  are  well  rooted,  a  top- 
dressing  of  stable  manure  and  kiln-dust  in  equal  parts  is  given 
them.  A  few  days  before  it  is  used  it  is  spread  out  in  thin  layers 
outdoors  and  soaked  several  times  with  liquid  manure.  It  is  applied 
to  the  soil  in  the  pots,  in  layers  2  inches  thick  near  the  rims,  but 
thinner  near  the  stems  of  the  trees.  This  top-dressing  greatly  im- 
proves and  strengthens  the  trees  for  the  coming  year.  After  grow- 
ing in  pots  one  summer,  trees  are  fit  to  be  sold  the  following  au- 
tumn or  spring.  Old  cherry  trees  that  have  been  cultivated  in  pots 
for  years  are  kept  during  winter  in  one  of  the  orchard  houses.  When 
spring  comes  and  their  buds  start,  the  pots  are 
plunged  up  to  the  rim  in  the  ground  in  the 
cherry  house. 

The  pyramidal  form  is  best  and  most  used 
for  potted  cherry  trees.  Pruning  is  not  often 
necessary  the  first  year  after  potting,  for  the 
strength  of  the  tree  goes  to  form  short  fruit 
branches ;  but  after  the  trees  are  well  rooted, 
strong  shoots  are  sent  out  in  summer.  Sum- 
mer pruning  consists  mainly  in  pinching  back 
these  strong  shoots  to  six  or  seven  leaves 
each.  If  after  this  first  stopping  they  grow 

LATED  ^O^'LA?"  A       out  a£am»  tnev  are  aSam  pinched  back.     On 

CURB  the  leading  branches,  side  shoots  that  are  not 

needed    to    fill    empty    spaces   or   make    new 

leaders  are  stopped  at  the  third  leaf.  The  sour  cherries,  which  form 
young  buds  better  on  the  side  shoots,  might  be  pruned  less. 

Much  winter  pruning  is  not  needed  for  trees  that  have  been  well 
stopped  in  summer.  Winter  pruning  must  be  done  as  soon  as  leaf 
and  bloom  buds  can  be  distinguished.  It  is  done  upon  the  same 
principle  as  outdoor  pruning,  but  as  the  room  in  orchard  houses  is 
limited,  all  growth  must  soon  be  pruned  into  fruit  branches. 

After  the  cherries  are  all  gathered,  the  trees  are  plunged  outside 
in  a  sunny,  sheltered  place  and  left  there  until  repotting  time  in 
October  or  November.  Trees  that  have  been  potted  but  one  year 
seldom  need  larger  pots  at  this  time,  so  2  or  3  inches  of  the  top 
soil  in  their  pots  is  taken  out  and  replaced  with  fresh.  Larger  pots 
are  given  in  after  years  when  these  young  trees  become  root-bound. 
Cherry  trees  ought  to  be  repotted  every  other  year. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
PRACTICAL  TREE  SURGERY* 

287.  Object  of  tree  surgery.— It  is  well  known  that  trees  are  sub- 
ject to  all  sorts  of  injuries,  from  sources  too  numerous  to  mention. 
In  a  great  majority  of  cases  these  injuries  are  allowed  to  remain 
untreated — often   for  years.     Rot-producing   fungi   commonly  gain 
entrance  at  these  places,  and  eventually  the  original   inconspicuous 
or  unobserved  injury  develops  into  a  comparatively  large  area  of 
decay.     The  real  aim  of  tree  surgery  is  to  repair  the  damage  re- 
sulting from  such  neglected  injuries  and  rotted  areas. 

288.  Principles  involved.— In  most  tree-surgery  work  a  few  funda- 
mental principles  must  be  observed  to  secure  good  results.     These 
may  be  summarized  as  follows:     (1)   Remove  all  decayed,  diseased 
or  injured  wood  and  bark.     When  on   small  limbs,  this  can  often 
best  be  done  by  removing  the  limb.    On  larger  limbs  or  on  the  trunk 
it  may  at  times  mean  the  digging  out  of  a  cavity.     (2)   Sterilize  all 
cut   surfaces.      (3)    Waterproof   all   cut   surfaces.      (4)    Leave   the 
work  in  the  most  favorable  condition  for  rapid  healing.     This  will 
often  mean  the  filling  of  deep  cavities.     (5)   Watch  the  work  from 
year  to  year  for  defects.    If  any  appear,  attend  to  them  immediately. 

289.  Qualifications  of  workmen.— Tree  surgery,  or,  more  properly, 
as  some  interested  persons  would  have  tree  owners  believe,  tree  re- 
pair work,  is  not  a  mysterious  art  known  to  only  a  favored  few  who 
alone  are  fitted  to  undertake  it.     It  can  be  undertaken  by  any  care- 
ful rtian  who  has  a  good  general  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  life 
history  of  a  tree,  its  normal  manner  of  covering  wounds  and  how 
insects  and  decay  organisms  cause  damage,  provided  he  can  handle 
the  necessary  tools  and  will  apply  in  a  practical  manner  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  anatomy  of  a  tree,  together  with  a  generous  admixture 
of  good  common  sense. 

290.  Types  and  scope  of  work.— I  n  its  simplest  type,  tree  surgery 
consists  in  removing  dead  or  decayed  limbs  or  stubs  from  a  tree 
and  treating  the  scar  with  an  antiseptic  and  waterproof  covering  to 
prevent  decay  while  healing.     Another  type  consists  in  cutting  out 
the  decayed  and  diseased  matter  in  trees  and  filling  the  cavities  with 
cement    or   other    materials    to    facilitate    the    normal    healing-over 
process.    This  is  often  referred  to  as  "tree  dentistry."  a  term  which 
very  aptly  indicates  the  character  of  the  work.     Filled  cavities  do 

*  Paragraphs  287  to  311  have  been  excerpted  and  slightly  condensed  from  J.  T. 
Collins's  article  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Book,  1913, 
Pages  162  to  190.  Only  about  half  the  article  is  herewith  included,  because  the 
balance  deals  mostly  with  physiological  and  other  features  already  discussed  in 
this  volume. 

884 


FIG.  303— CEMENT  FILLINGS  AND  GUY  CHAIN   ATTACHMENT 
A,  Cement  shattered  by  cold  and  swaying  of  tree.     B,  Section  of  trunk  showing 
metal-covered  cavit-'es.     C,  Simple   way  to  fasten   guy  chain  to  hook  bolt.     D,  Nails 
and    cement-reinforcing    rods    in     place,    for    filling.      E,    Shallow    cavity    ready    for 
creosote  and  tar,  not   usually  cement   filled. 


386  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

not  increase  the  strength  of  the  trunk  or  limb  to  the  extent  that  is 
generally  supposed. 

291.  Dead    or    diseased    branches.— For    the    work    of    removing 
branches,  the  most  essential  implements  are  a  good-sized  saw  with 
teeth  so  set  as  to  make  a  wide  cut,  a  gouge,  a  chisel,  a  mallet  and  a 
strong  knife.    For  cutting  limbs  near  the  ground  these  are  the  only 
necessary  implements.     For  limbs  situated  elsewhere  a  ladder  may 
be  needed;  also,  at  times,  a  rope. 

292.  Treatment  of  cavities.— During  the  last  few  years  there  has 
been  widespread  popular  interest  in  the  treatment  of  decayed  places 
in  old  trees.    This  type  of  work  comprises  many  inquiries  addressed 
to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  refers  solely  to  methods  em- 
ployed in  cementing  cavities.    This  is  a  logical  result  of  the  present 
extensive  essential  operations:     (1)   Removing  all  decayed  and  dis- 
eased matter,  (2)  sterilizing  and  waterproofing  all  cut  surfaces,  and 
(3)  filling  the  cavity  in  a  manner  that  will  favor  rapid  healing  and 
exclude  rot-producing  organisms. 

The  necessary  tools  for  digging  out  decayed  matter  are  two  out- 
side-ground socket-handled  gouges  (one  with  a  curved  cutting  edge 
of  about  s/4  inch,  and  the  other  perhaps  ll/2  inches),  a  chisel,  a 
mallet,  a  knife  and  an  oilstone  for  ordinary  work.  The  gouges, 
chisel  and  knife  should  never  be  used  near  the  cambium  when  they 
lack  a  keen  edge,  as  dull  tools  will  injure  it.  In  cutting  out  deep 
cavities,  longer  interchangeable  handles  for  the  gouges  may  be  nec- 
essary. A  ladder  or  a  stepladder  will  be  required  if  the  work  is 
more  than  5  feet  from  the  ground. 

293.  Excavating.— Usually  an  old  decayed  spot  may  be  partially 
or  wholly  covered  by  a  new  growth  of  wood  and  bark  at  the  edges, 
and  the  visible  decayed  area  be  small  as  compared  with  that  which  is 
hidden  (Fig.  301  D,  F).    In  such  cases  it  is  usually  necessary  to  en- 
large the  opening  with  the  gouges   and  mallet  in   order   to  make 
sufficient  room  in  which  to  use  the  gouges  in  the  interior.     This 
opening  should   not  be  any  wider  than   necessary,  but   it  may  be 
sufficiently  long  to  reach  all  the  decayed  and   diseased  heartwood 
with  little  or  no  additional  injury  to  the  tree. 

If  the  decayed  and  diseased  wood  extends  some  distance  above 
or  below  the  external  opening,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  cut  one 
or  more  holes  above  or  below  the  main  opening  in  order  to  facili- 
tate the  removal  of  the  diseased  wood  (Fig.  305  A).  This  results  in 
one  or  more  bridges  of  wood  and  bark  spanning  the  long  interior 
cavity,  a  practice  of  doubtful  value,  partly  because  it  is  often  im- 
possible to  see  whether  the  diseased  wood  has  been  entirely  removed 
from  the  under  side  of  the  bridges,  but  mainly  because  there  is  a 
strong  tendency  in  most  trees  for  the  bark  and  the  sap  wood  of  the 
bridges  to  die  and  decay  as  a  result  of  severing  the  sap-conducting 
tubes  both  above  and  below.  If  the  holes  are  pointed  above  and 
below,  there  is  less  trouble  from  this  source.  A  practice  that  permits 
a  more  thorough  cleaning  out  of  the  cavity  is  to  make  a  narrow 
opening,  pointed  at  both  ends  and  sufficiently  long  to  include  all  the 


PRACTICAL  TREE  SURGERY  387 

diseased  wood.    This  often  extends  some  distance  above  and  below 
the  visible  discolored  area. 

The  most  important  feature  of  this  stage  of  the  work  is  to  re- 
move all  the  diseased  and  insect-eaten  wood  (Fig.  305  B,  C).  This 
excavating  must  continue  on  all  sides  of  the  cavity  until  sound 
uninfected  wood  is  reached.  All  discolored  or  water-soaked 
heartwood  should  be  removed,  as  this  is  the  region  in  which  the  rot- 
producing  fungus  is  most  active.  In  decayed  areas  of  many  years' 
standing  there  may  be  only  a  thin  shell  of  uninfected  wood  around 
the  cavity  (Fig.  301  F),  in  which  case  there  is  danger  of  the  tree 
being  broken  by  storms  unless  braced  or  guyed. 

294.  Drainage.— The   bottom   and   all   other   parts    of   the   cavity 
should  be  so  shaped  that  if  water  were  thrown  into  the  cavity  it 
would  promptly  run  out  and  none  remain  in  any  hollow.     This  fea- 
ture is  commonly  called  "drainage."    It  is  bad  practice  to  have  a  deep 
water  pocket  at  the  bottom  of  a  cavity  with   drainage  through  an 
auger  hole  bored  from  the  exterior.    An  open  hole  of  this  sort  often 
becomes  a  favorable  lodging  place  for  insects  or  fungous  spores. 

295.  Undercutting. — Another  important  point  in  shaping  a  cavity 
is  to  have  the  sides  undercut  if  possible,  so  as  to  hold  the  filling 
firmly   in    place.      Care    must    be   taken, 

however,   not  to  have    the  wood   at  the 

edges  of   the  opening  very  thin,   as   this 

promotes  the  drying  out  of  the  bark  and 

sap  wood  at  these  points.     Ordinarily  the 

edges  should  be   at  least  34  of   an  inch 

thick, and  \l/>   would  be  better  (Figs. 301 D, 

306  A).    Inrolled  bark  at  the  edges  of  an 

opening    should    be    cut    back    in    nearly 

parallel  radial  planes,  as  a  rule,  to  a  point 

which    will    permit    the    surface    of    the 

completed  cement  filling  to  conform  with 

and  continue  across  the  cavity  the  general 

contour  of  the  woody  part  of  the  trunk         »J«  PLACED   BOLT 

(Fig.  306  A) .  If  it  is  not  possible  to  under-  HEAD 

cut  sufficiently  to  hold  the  filling  firmly  in 

place,  the  alternative  method  described  under  "Nailing'  (297)   may 

be  adopted  (Fig.  306  B). 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  working  around  the  cambium, 
and  all  cutting  tools  must  be  kept  very  sharp.  The  final  cutting  along 
the  edges  of  the  bark  and  the  sap  wood  can  usually  best  be  made 
with  a  very  sharp  knife.  This  cutting  must  be  followed  immediately 
by  a  coating  of  shellac,  which  should  cover  the  edges  of  both  bark 
and  sap  wood. 

296.  Bolting.— Before  cementing  a  long  cavity  it  is  advisable  to 
place  through  it  one  or  more  bolts,  so  as  to  hold  the  wood  and  the 
cement  more  firmly  in  place.     A  cavity  2  feet  or  less  in  length  will 
not  usually  require  a  bolt,  but  long  cavities,  as  a  general  rule,  should 


FIG.  305— LONG  CAVITIES  EXCAVATED  THROUGH  SEVERAL  OPENINGS,  AND 

A   SHORT  CAVITY    EXCAVATED  THROUGH    ONE   OPENING 
A,  Cavities  in  two  trees  excavated  through  small  openings  cut  in  the  trunks.     It 
would    be    better    to    make    the    openings   oval    and    pointed    rather   than    square    or 
round.     B,  An  old  injury  caused  by  horses  gnawing  the  bark.     C,  The  injury  shown 
in  B  excavated  and  ready  for  tarring  prior  to  filling. 


PRACTICAL  TREE  SURGERY  391 

be  bolUOGB).  The  heads  of  the  nails  finally  are  completely  embedded 
so  as  -  cement  (Fig.  306  E).  If  the  cavity  is  already  bolted,  it  may  not 
be  n Accessary  to  use  many  nails,  because  the  bolts  help  to  hold  the 
cas^nent  in  place. 

le  298.  Treating.— After  the  decayed  and  diseased  matter  has  been 
ccompletely  excavated  and  the  edges  of  the  sap  wood  and  bark  shel- 
lacked, the  next  step  is  to  sterilize  the  interior  of  the  cavity  in  order 
that  all  germs  of  disease  or  decay  may  be  killed  and  that  any  which 
may  come  in  contact  with  the  cut  surfaces  during  subsequent  opera- 
tions may  be  destroyed.  Creosote  appears  to  be  one  of  the  best 
preparations  to  use.  Every  cut  part  of  wood  and  bark  must  be 
creosoted.  Over  this  a  heavy  coating  of  tar  or  hot  asphalt  should  be 
applied  before  the  cavity  is  filled. 

299.  Mixing  the  cement.— A  good  grade  of  Portland  cement  and 
clean,  sharp  sand  free  from  loam  (1  part  of  cement  to  3  or  less  of 
sand)  should  be  used.     The  mixing  may  be  done  in  a  mortar  bin,  a, 
wheelbarrow,  a  pail,  or  in  any  other  available  receptacle  sufncienliy 
large.    A  quantity  of  dry  cement  and  sand  sufficient  to  fill  the  cavitv 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  before  the  requisite  amount  of  water  to 
make  a  rather  stiff  mortar  is  added,  and  the  whole  mixture  worked 
to  an  even  consistency.    In  large  cavities  fine  gravel,  free  from  loam, 
is  sometimes  substituted  for  the  sand. 

300.  Cementing. — For  placing  the  mixture  in  the  cavity  a  mason's 
flat  trowel  and  an  ordinary  garden  trowel  with  a  curved  blade  will 
be  found  convenient.     A  tamping  stick,  1  or  2  inches  thick  and   1 
to  3  feet  long,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cavity,  will  be  needed. 

A  layer  of  cement  2  or  3  inches  deep  may  now  be  placed  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cavity  with  the  garden  trowel  and  tamped  firmly  in 
place.  This  operation  is  repeated  until  the  cement  is  8  to  12  inches 
thick.  Wet  rocks  of  various  sizes  may  be  embedded  in  the  cement 
provided  they  do  not  reach  within  an  inch  or  two  of  its  outer  face. 
If  the  mixture  is  too  wet,  it  will  tend  to  run  out  of  the  cavity  under 
the  operation  of  tamping.  If  too  little  water  has  been  used,  it  will 
not  pack  down  promptly. 

The  top  of  the  8  .to  12-inch  block  of  cement  is  smoothed  with  the 
flat  trowel  so  it  will  slant  slightly  downward  from  back  to  front, 
in  order  to  facilitate  drainage.  Over  the  top  of  this  cement  block 
a  double  or  a  single  sheet  of  tarred  roofing  (or  thinner)  paper  is 
placed  after  it  has  been  cut  so  as  to  fit  the  cavity.  On  top  of  this 
another  block  of  cement  is  built  as  soon  as  the  first  block  is  suffi- 
ciently hard  to  stand  the  weight  and  tamping  without  forcing  any 
of  it  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  cavity. 

If  the  interior  of  the  cavity  extends  well  above  the  level  of  the 
external  opening,  it  may  occasionally  be  necessary  to  bore  or  cut 
a  downward  slanting  hole  from  the  outside  to  the  top  of  the  interior 
cavity,  through  which  a  watery  mixture  of  cement  may  be  poured  to 
fill  the  upper  part  of  the  cavity  and  the  hole.  The  main  opening 
of  the  cavity  must  be  completely  closed  with  the  stiffer  cement  be- 
fore this  watery  mixture  is  introduced. 


392 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 


When  a  block  of  cement  has  partially  hardened,  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  smooth  carefully  the  outer  surface  or  cut  it  down  with 
the  rlat  trowel  to  the  level  of  the  cambium,  taking  great  care 
that  the  latter  is  not  injured  in  the  operation.  If  the 
cement  is  allowed  to  become  too  hard  to  trim  with  the  trowel,  it 
can  still,  with  more  or  less  difficulty,  be  cut  back  to  the  cambium 
line  with  a  cold  chisel  and  a  hammer.  It  is  a  rule  with  most  tree 
surgeons  to  trim  back  the  outer  surface  of  the  cement  to  l/s  inch  or 
more  below  the  cambium  and  then  use  a  layer  of  stronger  cement 
(one  part  of  cement  to  one  to  two  of  sand)  to  raise  it  to  the  level 
of  the  cambium,  after  the  rilling  has  partially  hardened. 

The  thinner  mixtures  of  cement  will  set  more  firmly.  If  any 
mixtures  thinner  than  the  one  already  mentioned  are  used  to  fill 
a  cavity,  some  sort  of  cloth  or  wire  dam  will  have  to  be  used  to 
hold  the  cement  in  place  until  it  is  hard.  For  this  purpose  strips 

of  burlap  wrapped  tightly  around  the 
tree  so  as  to  cover  the  lower  part  of 
the  opening  may  be  sufficient  if  the 
mixture  is  not  rery  thin ;  otherwise, 
a  more  closely  woven  fabric,  such  as 
canvas  or  carpet,  may  be  used.  This 
dam  at  first  should  cover  about  a 
foot  of  the  lower  part  of  the  open- 
ing. The  cavity  may  then  be  filled 
with  cement  to  the  top  of  the  dam. 

The  top  is  smoothed  and  covered 
with  tarred  paper,  as  already  de- 
scribed, the  height  of  the  clam  is  in- 
creased and  the  operation  repeated. 
Before  the  cement  has  become  too 
hard,  the  dam  is  removed  and  the 
surface  of  the  cement  finished  in  the 
usual  manner,  either  to  the  level  of 
the  cambium  at  once,  or  it  may  be 
cut  a  little  farther  back  and  a  finish- 
ing layer  of  stronger  cement  applied 
to  bring  the  surface  to  the  proper 
level.  The  surface  of  the  cement 
must  be  wet  before  the  stronger  finishing  layer  is  applied. 

A  very  large  proportion  of  the  cemented  cavities  seen  in  trees  at 
present  are  made  in  one  piece,  without  the  use  of  tarred-paper 
partitions.  Long  cavities  of  this  sort  are  particularly  subject  to  de- 
fects, so  one-piece  fillings  are  not  recommended  except  for  short 
cavities,  where  these  particular  objections  do  not  apply.  The  method 
employed  is  only  a  slight  modification  of  that  already  described, 
and  will  readily  be  understood  by  a  study  of  Fig.  308  B,  C,  D,  and 
the  legends  which  accompany  them.  These  figures  show  successive 
stages  of  work  in  the  same  cavity. 


FIG.  307— HOW  NOT  TO  COVER 

A    CAVITY   WITH    CEMENT 

OR   CONCRETE 


FIG.  308— CEMENT  FILLING  TYPES  AND  SUCCESSIVE  STEPS 
A,  Cavity  filled  with  cement  blocks  separated  by  tarred  paper.  B,  Cavity  ready 
for  treating  and  filling.  C,  Cavity  in  B,  nailed  and  partly  cement  filled.  Ends  of 
reinforcing  rods  sprung  into  shallow  holes  in  wood.  Wire  dam,  sometimes  allowed 
to  remain  in  cement,  though  usually  removed  when  cement  has  partly  set.  D,  Later 
stage  of  C,  height  of  dam  increased.  E,  Same  cavity  completed. 


394  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

The  edges  of  cement  fillings  in  the  crotches  of  limbs  are  es- 
pecially difficult  to  keep  water-tight.  Besides  bolting  the  cavity  and 
guying  the  limbs  above  it,  the  crevices  at  the  edges  of  such  cement 
fillings  must  be  made  as  nearly  waterproof  as  thick  tar  or  asphalt 
can  make  them. 

After  the  cement  filling  has  become  thoroughly  dry,  the  outer  face 
may  be  painted  with  coal  tar  or  paint,  especially  around  the  edges 
where  cracks  are  likely  to  appear.  This  should  not  be  done  for 
several  weeks  after  the  cement  has  been  put  into  the  cavity. 

301.  Defects  in  cement  work.— Although   fillings  made  with   ce- 
ment mixtures  (cement  mortar  and  concrete)  have  many,  and  often 
serious  defects,  this  material  is  so  cheap  and  so  easily  handled  that 
no  other  at  present  is  so  generally  used  for  the  purpose  in  this 
country.     The  most  serious  defects  in  cement  mixtures  are  directly 
due  to  the  hardness  and  rigidity  after  the  cement  has  become  dry. 
This  inflexibility  results  in  cracks  appearing  across  the  cement  of 
long  fillings  (where  not  put  in  in  sections  or  blocks,  as  recommended 
here)   as  the  tree  sways  back  and  forth  in  the  wind   (Fig.  303  A). 
Rods  for  re-enforcing  the  concrete  are  often  placed  in  large  cavities 
to  be  filled  in  one  block  (Fig.  303  D). 

During  a  cold  period  in  winter,  particularly  one  that  has  been 
preceded  by  warm  weather,  the  wood  of  an  unbolted  cavity  may 
draw  away  from  the  cement,  often  leaving  a  comparatively  wide 
crack  (Fig.  303  A).  Sometimes,  by  the  contraction  of  the  wood  on  a 
cold  day,  the  tree  itself  will  split  above  or  below  the  filling,  or  even 
through  the  cement  when  the  cavity  has  been  nailed  but  not  bolted. 
This  cracking  may  be  prevented  to  some  extent  by  having  nailed 
cavities  with  a  vertical  partition  of  tarred  paper  extending  through- 
out the  length  of  the  filling. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  cement  filling  forms  a  surface  over  which 
new  wood  and  bark  can  form  during  the  growing  season,  and  if  the 
decayed  and  diseased  matter  in  the  cavity  is  entirely  removed  be- 
fore the  cement  is  used,  it  very  largely,  if  not  entirely,  checks 
further  decay.  If  cracks  appear  in  the  cement,  or  the  wood  draws 
away  from  the  cement,  or  the  work  is  not  properly  done,  decay 
organisms  may  again  gain  entrance  at  the  edge  of  the  cement  and 
cause  further  trouble. 

302.  Open  cavities.— Tn  a  tree  which  is  not  considered  of  sufficient 
value  to  warrant  cleaning  and  filling  the  decayed  areas,  these  may  be 
excavated,  sterilized  and  waterproofed  (Fig.  303  E).    In  this  condi- 
tion they  may  often  be  safely  left  for  years  if  the  waterproof  covering 
is  renewed  as  soon  as  cracks  or  blisters  appear.    Cavities  treated  in 
this  way  are  probably  as  safe  as  ordinary  cemented   cavities  and 
have  the  advantage  of  easy  inspection  from  time  to  time.     Shallow 
cavities  in  valuable  trees  may  be  very  satisfactorily  treated  in  this 
manner.     The  new  wood  and  bark  produced  by  the  cambium  along 
the  margins  will  form  an  inwardly  rolled  edge  (Fig.  306  A),  as  there 
is  no  cement  across  the  cavity. 


FIG.  309— PROPER  METHOD  OF  FASTENING  GUY  CHAINS  AND  BOLTS    ALSO 

IMPROPER   METHOD  OF  ATTACHING  WIRES 

A,  Elm  limbs  guyed  by  several  independent  chains  15  feet  above  the  crotches. 
B,  Split  crotch  guyed  by  long  bolt  about  18  inches  above  the  crotch.  C,  Tupelo  tree 
nearly  strangled  by  telegraph  wires  around  the  trunk. 


396  PRINCIPLES  AND   PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

303.  When  to  undertake  tree  surgery.— As  a  general   rule,   t-ce 
surgery  may  be  safely  undertaken  at  almost  any  time  of  year  when 
the   sap   is   not    running  too   actively  and   the  weather   is   not   cold 
enough  to  freeze  the  cement.     In  most  trees  the  sap  will  interfere 
with  the  work  only  from  the  time  the  buds  begin  to  expand  in  the 
spring  until  the  leaves  are  full  grown.    Cement  work  will  be  ruined 
if  it  is  frozen  before  it  is  hard.     It  is  not  likely  to  be  injured  by 
frost  after  it  has  been  drying  for  a  week. 

304.  Guying. — Closely  associated  with  the  work  of  tree  surgery 
proper,  and  often  an  indispensable  adjunct,  is  the  guying  of  limbs 
to  prevent  the  splitting  of  the  crotches  or  to  check  further  splitting. 
The  best  place  to  put  these  guys  depends  largely  upon  the  shape  and 
position  of  the  limbs  to  be  braced.    This  varies  so  widely  in  different 
trees  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  give  very  specific  directions  for 
this  kind  of  work. 

A  simple  method  of  guying  a  crotch  is  to  place  a  hook  bolt  through 
each  limb,  with  the  hooks  in  the  two  limbs  toward  each  other  and 
from  3  to  10  feet  or  more  above  the  crotch  (depending  upon  the 
size,  position  and  length  of  the  limbs)  and  slipping  the  end  link  of 
a  stout  chain  over  one  of  the  hooks  (Fig.  303  C).  While  at  the 
proper  place  in  the  chain  to  make  a  sufficiently  taut  guy  a  link  is 
slipped  over  the  other  hook.  The  rest  of  the  chain  may  then  be  cut 
away  if  desired  (Fig.  309  A). 

Modifications  of  this  method  may  be  used  where  three  or  more 
adjoining  limbs  are  to  be  guyed  collectively.  A  simple  method  is 
to  place  a  hook  bolt  through  each  limb  at  the  proper  place  and  then 
hook  a  link  of  the  chain  over  each  bolt  hook  at  any  desired  point, 
one  of  the  hooks  serving  to  hold  the  two  end  links  of  the  chain. 
The  precautions  mentioned  under  "Bolting"  (296)  should  always 
be  followed,  so  far  as  they  apply  to  boring  and  tarring  the  hole  and 
countersinking  the  washers  of  the  bolts. 

A  turnbuckle  rod  or  bolt  is  much  better  than  a  chain  when  the 
guy  is  to  be  kept  perfectly  taut  at  all  times.  Furthermore,  this  rod 
permits  a  ready  tightening  of  the  guy  within  certain  limits  should 
it  later  become  necessary.  I  f  for  any  reason  the  guy  is  to  be  placed 
within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  crotch,  a  single  long  bolt  may  often  be 
used  to  better  advantage  (Fig.  309  B),  and  sometimes  a  single  long 
bolt  may  be  used  in  place  of  a  chain  or  a  turnbuckle  rod  where  the 
guyed  limbs  are  not  likely  to  twist  much  as  they  sway  in  the  wind. 

Occasionally  it  may  become  necessary  to  guy  a  whole  tree  in 
order  to  prevent  the  breaking  of  the  trunk  where  an  unusually  large 
cavity  leaves  only  a  thin  shell  of  sound  wood,  or  to  prevent  the 
tree  from  tipping  over.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  attaching 
four  guy  chains  or  ropes  to  the  tree  about  half  way  from  the  ground 
to  the  top  of  the  tree  and  having  these  slant  downward  at  an  angle 
about  equidistant  around  the  tree  (e.  g.,  on  the  north,  east,  south 
and  west  sides  of  the  tree). 

The  method  of  attaching  the  guys  securely  to  the  posts  is  itn- 


PRACTICAL  TREE  SURGERY 


397 


material.  The  method  of  attaching  them  to  the  tree  is  important. 
If  the  guying  is  for  temporary  purposes  only,  two  broad  bands  of 
leather,  stout  canvas  or  other  strong  material,  each  long  enough  to 
make  a  loop  at  least  twice  the  diameter  of  the  trunk  or  limb  to  be 
encircled  and  4  to  6  inches  wide,  may  be  passed  around  the  tree 
or  some  favorably  situated  limb  and  two  adjoining  guys  attached 
to  each  loose  loop. 

If  a  more  permanent  guyjng  is  needed,  two  eyebolts  (or  hook 
bolts)  may  be  placed  through  parallel  creosoted  holes  in  the  trunk 
or  the  limb  about  half  way  up  the  tree,  one  about  6  inches  above 
the  other.  The  eye  of  one  bolt  should  be  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  tree  from  the  other.  Two  guys  from  two  adjoining  posts  are 
attached  to  each  eyebolt.  The  chafing  of  a  limb  against  a  guy  may 
be  prevented  by  padding  the  guy  if  this  latter  cannot  be  so  placed 
as  to  clear  the  limbs. 

Limbs  or  trees  should  never  be  guyed  by  passing  wires,  chains 
or  ropes  tightly  around  them.  These  may  eventually  strangle  the 
portions  beyond  the  encircling  band.  Encircling  fence  wires,  tele- 
graph wires,  clotheslines,  or  guy  wires  will  act  in  the  same  way, 
killing  all  parts  of  the  tree  beyond  the  wires  if  these  remain  tightly 
drawn  around  the  limb  or  trunk  for  any  great 
length  of  time — occasionally  in  less  than  a 
year  (Fig.  309  C). 

305.  Trees  worth  repairing. — Most  orna- 
mental and  shade  trees  having  only  a  few  dead 
limbs  are  unquestionably  worth  attention. 
Others  which  have  many  dead  limbs  or  numer- 
ous decayed  areas  may  not  be  worth  the  ex- 
pense, particularly  if  they  are  naturally  rapid- 
growing,  short-lived  trees.  No  one  can  decide 
better  than  the  owner  of  a  tree  whether  it  is 
worth  the  attempt  to  save  it,  because  usually 
the  actual  commercial  value  of  an  ornamental 
or  shade  tree  has  little  or  nothing  to  do  with 
the  decision.  It  is  generally  a  question  merely 
of  esthetic  value,  or  historic  associations,  or 
rarity  of  the  species.  A  man  who  has  had 
experience  in  repairing  mutilated  or  diseased 
trees  may  be  able  to  say  definitely  whether  it 
is  possible  to  save  the  tree,  but  the  owner, 
who  pays  the  bills,  is  the  one  who  will  have  to 
decide  whether  the  tree  is  worth  the  price  it 
will  take  to  repair  it.  Often  the  owner  will 


FIG.  310— ISN'T    THIS 
GHASTLY  ? 


realize  a  greater  degree  of  satisfaction  by  having  a  badly  diseased  or 
mutilated  tree  replaced.  In  expert  hands  the  moving  of  large  trees 
is  no  longer  a  hazardous  undertaking. 

306.  Commercial  tree  surgery.— The  writer's  observation  of  the 
workmen  employed  in  commercial  tree  surgery  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  few  have  any  knowledge  of  the  manner  of  growth  of 


398 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 


fungi  which  causj  disease  in  trees,  or,  if  they  do  know  something 
about  it,  they  apparently  do  not  allow  this  knowledge  to  modify 
their  methods  appreciably.  It  is  extremely  important  that  special 
precautions  be  taken  when  a  contagious  disease,  such  as  the  chestnut 
bark  disease,  is  infecting  a  tree  [because  through  ignorance  disease 
may  be  spread  by  infected  tools,  as  in  the  case  of  pear  blight,  1%]. 

307.  Ignorant  workmen  and  fakers. — Unfortunately  for  tree 
owners  and  the  trees  themselves,  many  men  who  are  set  at  work  by 
an  unreliable  contractor  know  little  or  nothing  of  the  fundamental 
principles  concerning  the  life  history  of  a  tree.  In  their  ignorance, 
such  workmen  are  likely  to  make  serious  blunders  through  neglect- 
ing to  do  certain  important  things,  the  reason  for  which  they  do 
not  understand.  The  faker  will  always  slight  any  stage  of  the  work, 
no  matter  how  important,  if  evidence  of  his  neglect  can  be  effec- 
tually obliterated  or  hidden  by  subsequent  operations. 

There  are  few  more  favorable  opportunities  for  practicing  frauds 
of  this  nature  than  in  the  operation  of  filling  cavities  in  trees.  The 
decayed  and  diseased  wood  may  be  only  partially  removed,  im- 
proper or  ne  antiseptic  coatings  used  in  the  cavity,  or  no  proper 


FIG.  311— ROPING  A  TREE  PREPARATORY  TO  BOLTING 

T   I  ropes  in  this  case  were  left  for  several  months   during  the   growing  ••••on. 
So*      began  to  girdle  the  large  limb  at  the  right. 


FIG.  312— STUDENTS   AT  WORK  IN   TREE  SURGERY 


400  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PKUNINS 

drainage  provided,  yet  no  one  can  tell  the  difference  after  the  cavity 
has  been  filled  or  covered  unless  the  filling  or  covering  be  re- 
moved. A  cavity  filled  with  cement  or  other  material  before  the 
decayed  and  diseased  wood  has  been  wholly  removed  is  nearly  com- 
parable to  a  tooth  from  which  the  decayed  matter  has  been  only 
partially  removed  by  the  dentist  before  it  is  filled. 

308.  Misuse   of  the  pruning   hook. — Too   commonly  the  ordinary 
workman  will  get  into  the  top  of  a  tree  and  use  his  long  pruning 
hook  to  break  off  the  small  dead  branches,  in  the  same  manner  that 
he  would  use  a  club  for  a  like  purpose.    When  so  used,  the  pruning 
hook  will  inevitably  cause  many  injuries  to  the  young  bark  of  ad- 
joining branches  and  make  wounds  through  which  disease  and  de- 
cay germs  may  enter.     In  this  manner  many  new  openings  for  the 
possible  entrance  of  disease  may  be  created  in  addition  to  the  one 
already  existing  in  the  dead  branch,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that 
merely  breaking  off  the  branch  does  not  prevent  decay  from  con- 
tinuing at  this  point,  while  every  new  bruise  or  wound  may  furnish 
a  new  point  for  decay  to  enter. 

309.  Climbing  devices. — On  various  occasions  we  have  seen  work- 
men in  the  employ  of  well-known  tree  surgery  firms  repeatedly  jab 
their  climbing   spurs   into   the  bark  on   horizontal    limbs   where   it 
would  have  been  much  easier  for  them  to  move  about  without  us- 
ing spurs   at  all.     The  use  of   climbing  spurs  on  trees   should  be 
avoided,  or  at  least  severely  discouraged.     It  would  be  best  if  they 
were  never  used.    Every  wound  made  by  one  of  these  spurs  may  bo- 
come  the  center  of  a  new  region  of  decay  if  conditions  favorable 
for  the  growth  of  decay  organisms  exist.     The  use  of  spurs  should 
be  strictly  prohibited  on  all  parts  of  a  tree  subject  to  a  contagious 
disease  above  ground,  especially  if  the  disease  is  known  to  exist 
in  the  vicinity.     A  man  who  uses  spurs  on  the  trunk  or  on  limbs 
that  may  readily  be  reached  by  a  light  ladder  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  work  on  trees.     Firms  which  permit  their  workmen  to  do 
this  should  be  classed  as  undesirable  or  dangerous  firms  to  deal  with 
and  accordingly  avoided.     Many  trees  have  been  irreparably  dam- 
aged and  left  in  far  worse  condition  after  ignorant  or  indifferent 
workmen    equipped   with    climbing   spurs    and   pruning   hooks   have 
worked  in  them  than  if  nothing  had  ever  been  done  to  them.     Tin- 
edges  of   the  soles  and  heels  of  leather  shoes,  to  say  nothing  of 
protruding  nails,  commonly  cause  considerable  injury  to  soft  ami 
tender  bark.    Probably  the  best  and  safest  footwear,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  preventing  injury  to  the  tree,  is  some  form  of  rubber- 
soled  shoe,  such  as  tennis  shoes  or  "sneaks."    All  properly  equipped 
firms  of  tree  surgeons  have  ladders  that  will  reach  40  or  50  feet  or 
more  into  a  tree.     Ladders,  ropes  and  rubber-soled  shoes  will  al- 
low a  man  to  reach  practically  every  part  of  a  tree  that  can  be 
reached  by  climbing  spurs. 

Reliable  estimates  indicate  that  it  takes  somewhat  longer  (per- 
haps 25  per  cent  on  an  average)  to  do  the  required  work  on  a  tree 
fi-'.en  ladders,  rojjes  and  rubber-soled  shoes  are  used  instead  of 


PRACTICAL  TREE  SURGER\  401 

climbing  spurs.  Consequently,  it  may  be  expected  that  contractors 
will  have  their  workmen  use  spurs  unless  these  are  specifically  pro- 
hibited. 

310.  Responsibility  of  tree   owners.— Owners   who  contract  with 
a  firm  of  tree  surgeons  to  attend  to  their  trees  are  occasionally 
quite  as  much  to  blame  for  the  resulting  poor  work  as  the  men  who 
do  it.     This  statement  refers  to  those  owners  who  get  an  estimate 
for  having  their  trees  repaired  in  a  proper  manner  by  men  who 
make  a  business  of  caring  for  trees  and  then  say,  in  effect,  "I've  got 
only  half  that  amount  of  money  for  the  work,  and  you  will  have  to 
do  it  for  that  or  I  will  get  someone  else  to  do  it." 

The  reliable  man  who  has  named  a  price  that  will  insure  at  least 
reasonably  good  work  has  to  do  one  of  two  things  under  those  con- 
ditions ;  either  he  must  decline  to  do  the  work  or  he  must  lower 
his  price.  When  these  conditions  arise  the  work  is  often  under- 
taken at  a  reduced  price.  This  generally  means  that  the  work  has 
to  be  of  a  cheaper  grade,  possibly  done  by  inexperienced  men,  in 
order  that  a  profit  may  be  realized.  A  wiser  course  for  the  owner 
would  have  been  to  put  his  available  money  into  repairing  in  a 
proper  manner  the  more  valuable  of  his  trees,  leaving  the  less  valu- 
able ones  untreated. 

With  the  completion  of  tree  surgery  work,  owners  usually  fail 
to  realize  the  importance  of  keeping  close  watch  of  their  trees,  in 
order  that  defects  which  appear  in  the  work  may  be  remedied 
promptly  and  that  new  injuries  elsewhere  on  the  tree  may  have 
immediate  attention.  If  a  tree  is  considered  by  its  owner  of  suffi- 
cient value  to  warrant  having  it  properly  and  carefully  treated  by  a 
tree  surgeon,  it  certainly  is  worth  the  slight  expense  of  subsequent 
annual  or  biennial  inspection  and  the  immediate  repair  of  newly 
discovered  injuries  at  a  time  when  the  expense  necessary  to  keep 
the  tree  in  good  condition  will  be  comparatively  small. 

311.  Contracts. — In  order  to  secure  better  results  in  the  future 
than  have   generally  been    attained   in  the  past,   and  to  put  com- 
mercial tree  surgery  on  a  basis  that  will  tend  to  eliminate  the  fakers, 
owners  are  urged  to  have  a  definite  written  contract  with  tree  sur- 
geons whom  they  employ  to  take  care  of  their  trees.    The  best  re- 
sults can  generally  be  attained  when  payment  is  to  be  based  upon 
the  amount  of  work  done  plus  the  cost  of  materials  used.    Probably 
most  persons,  however,  will  prefer  to  have  the  trees  examined  and  a 
definite  price  agreed  upon  before  any  work  is  undertaken.    In  either 
case  there  should  be  a  definite  written  understanding  concerning  at 
least  certain  important  phases  of  the  work,  in  addition  to  price  and 
methods  of  payment.     The  following  is  suggested  as  a  model  for 
such  contract: 

(1)  No   climbing  spurs   shall   be   used   on   any  part  of   a  tree. 

(2)  The  shoes  worn  by  the  workmen  shall  have  soft  rubber  bottoms. 

(3)  Ordinary  commercial  orange  shellac  or  other  specified  dressing 
shall  be  applied  to  cover  the  cut  edges  of  sap  wood  and  cambium 


402  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 

within  five  minutes  after  the  final  trimming  cut  is  made.  (4)  All 
cut  and  shellacked  surfaces  shall  be  painted  with  commercial 
creosote,  followed  by  thick  coal  tar.  (5)  All  diseased,  rotten,  dis- 
colored, water-soaked,  or  insect-eaten  wood  shall  be  removed  in 
cavity  work  and  the  cavity  inspected  by  the  owner  or  his  agent  be- 
fore it  is  filled.  (6)  Only  a  good  grade  of  Portland  cement  and 
clean,  sharp  sand  in  no  weaker  mixture  than  one  to  three  shall  be 
used  to  fill  cavities.  (7)  The  contractor  shall  repair,  free  of  ex- 
pense, any  defects  that  may  appear  in  the  work  within  one  year. 

Tree  owners  are  urged  to  remember  at  all  times  the  axiom :  The 
need  of  tree  surgery  15  or  20  years  hence  may  be  very,  largely 
obviated  by  promptly  attending  to  the  fresh  injuries  of  today. 

312.  Electrical  injuries  to  trees. — According  to  G.  E.  Stone*  most 
of  the  injury  to  trees  from  trolley  or  electric  light  currents  is  local ; 
i.  e.,  the  injury  takes  place  at  or  near  the  point  of  contact  of  the 
wire  with  the  tree.     This  injury  is  done  in  wet  weather  when  the 
tree  is  covered  with  a  film  of  water,  which  provides  favorable  con- 
ditions for  leakage,  the  current  traversing  the  film  of  water  on  the 
tree  to  the  ground.     The  result  of  contact  of  a  wire  with  a  limb 
under  these  conditions  is  grounding  of  the  current  and  burning  <>f 
the  limb  due  to   "arcing."     The  vital  layer  and  wood   become  in- 
jured at  the  point  of  contact,  resulting  in  an  ugly  scar  and  some- 
times the  destruction  of  the  limb  or  leader.     In  a  large  number  of 
tests  made  by  the  aid  of  sensitive  instruments  with  guy  wire  and 
other  connections  of  wires  to  trees  we  have  never  found  any  leakage 
during  fair  weather,  or  when  the  surface  of  the  tree  is  dry. 

313.  Preventing  injury  to  tress  from  wires. — The  constantly  in- 
creasing use  of  electricity  for  various  purposes  makes  necessary  a 
more  extensive  use  of  wires.     These  have  become  a  great  menace 
to  shade  trees.    The  appearance  of  streets  is  also  hardly  improved 
by  the  increased  number  of  poles  and  wires,  and  the  legal  restric- 
tions as  to  the  height,  distance  apart,  etc.,  of  the  wires  of  the  tele- 
phone, telegraph,  trolley  and  electric  light  companies  make  the  prob- 
lem of  maintaining  shade  trees  on  the  same  street  with  public  serv- 
ice corporations  a  serious  one. 

Of  all  the  troubles  with  which  tree  wardens  have  to  contend  the 
wire  problem  is  often  regarded  as  the  worst.  Notwithstanding  the 
strict  laws  which  some  states  have  adopted  in  regard  to  injuring 
shade  trees,  the  agents  of  some  public  service  corporations  often 
have  little  regard  for  trees  or  the  laws  respecting  them.  \Yhere 
40-foot  poles  must  carry  the  wires  of  three  or  four  public  service 
corporations  there  can  be  little  or  no  opportunity  to  preserve  the 
natural  symmetry  of  shade  trees,  especially  when  low-branching 
trees  are  planted  on  the  same  side  of  the  street  with  the  wires. 

The  best  solution  of  the  wire  problem  lies  in  burying  the  wires. 
This  has  been  done  a  good  deal  in  large  cities,  especially  in  the  busi- 
ness sections.  It  is  an  expensive  system,  however,  and  those  who 

*  Massachusetts    Agricultural   Experiment   Station,    Bulletin    165. 


PRACTICAL  TREE  SURGERY  403 

so  strenuously  advocate  its  adoption  do  not  always  consider  that  in 
the  end  it  is  the  patrons  who  have  to  pay  for  it. 

Another  method  of  preventing  injuries  is  the  erection  of  high 
poles  to  bring  the  wires  over  the  trees.  This  is  sometimes  done, 
especially  where  the  trees  are  young  or  of  a  species  that  naturally 
grows  low,  when  a  very  high  pole  would  be  sufficient  to  clear  them 
for  many  years.  The  cable  system  may  be  used  for  telephone  wires, 
and  much  injury  to  trees  prevented.  Large  cables  are  rather  ex- 
pensive to  install,  but  what  is  termed  the  "ring  construction"  system 
may  be  used  to  advantage  in  many  instances,  particularly  in  the 
suburbs.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  run  a  line  through  avenues 
of  fine  trees  in  the  country  districts  without  necessitating  pruning 
or  disfiguration. 

Rights  of  way  for  poles  on  private  property  back  of  residences 
are  sometimes  secured,  and  by  this  means  the  poles  and  wires  may 
be  removed  from  the  streets,  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  trees. 
But  such  rights  are  often  difficult  to  secure,  and  are  not  always 
satisfactory  either  to  the  public  service  corporations  or  the  owners 
of  the  property.  The  former  naturally  do  not  care  much  for  these 
rights  of  way  unless  they  are  legal  and  permanent,  and  the  owners 
in  granting  permanent  rights  run  a  risk  of  lowering  the  value  of  the 
property.  Most  of  the  very  high-tension  transmission  services, 
however,  are  at  present  on  private  property,  and  seldom  interfere 
with  trees.  High-tension  lines  are  affected  seriously  merely  by  close 
proximity  to  trees;  therefore,  these  rights  of  way  have  to  include 
broad  strips  of  land — of  course  expensive. 

On  general  principles  it  is  not  wise  to  allow  wires  to  be  attached 
to  trees,  although  this  is  often  done.  Trolley  and  electric  light  wires 
are  frequently  guyed  to  trees,  but  they  are  a  source  of  danger,  since 
injury  is  likely  to  occur  from  the  crossing  of  the  wires,  and  light- 
ning discharges  occasionally  pass  from  the  wires  to  the  tree,  caus- 
ing damage.  It  is,  however,  often  better  to  allow  this  than  to  endure 
the  erection  of  ugly  poles;  but  proper  insulation  of  the  wires  should 
be  insisted  on,  although  ordinary  insulators  have  little  effect  on 
lightning  discharges. 

The  lag-bolt  system  in  common  use  for  guying  wires  to  trees  is 
not  the  best  method,  for  sooner  or  later  the  wire  and  the  bolt  be- 
come embedded  in  the  tree  and  cause  injury.  Moreover,  a  direct 
metal  connection  with  a  tree  is  objectionable.  The  block  system  is 
better,  although  it  may  not  in  all  cases  be  'free  from  objections. 
In  no  case  should  a  wire  be  allowed  to  pass  tightly  around  a  tree, 
as  it  will  girdle  it  in  time.  When  live  wires  come  into  contact  with 
limbs,  some  type  of  insulator  should  be  employed.  There  are  various 
types,  some  being  effective  in  preventing  injury  from  low-voltage 
lines. 

Wires  often  accidentally  come  into  contact  with  trees  by  the  dis- 
placement of  poles,  particularly  on  curves,  where  the  strain  is  very 
great,  but  much  of  this  injury  may  be  prevented  by  embedding  the 


404 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 


poles  in   Portland  cement.     It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  ne- 
cessity for  guying  poles  to  trees  may  be  obviated  in  this  way. 

Better  methods  of  handling  this  vexatious  question  of  wires  and 
shade  trees  should  be  forthcoming  in  the  future,  and  even  at  present 
there  must  be  a  compromise  between  the  tree  warden  or  city  forester 
and  the  companies  as  to  the  best  method  of  wiring  through  tree 
belts  and  the  amount  of  pruning  allowed.  Conditions  at  present 
favor  the  corporations,  as  they  are  furnishing  valuable  and  nec- 
essary facilities  for  business,  etc.  In  towns  they  obtain  their  fran- 
chises and  location  of  poles  from  the  selectmen  with  little  difficulty. 
The  selectmen  notify  the  abutters  of  any  contemplated  installations 
of  poles  and  wires  or  of  changes  to  occur  in  the  systems,  and  the 
abutters  are  given  a  hearing.  However,  they  usually  wake  up  to 
their  duty  only  after  the  installation  of  the  lines,  when  the  tree 
warden  must  assume  all  responsibility  for  injury  to  the  trees.  He 
has  to  choose  between  two  courses — prevent  the  pruning  or  permit 
it.  In  either  case  the  companies  can  erect  the  poles  and  install 
the  wires,  allowing  the  wires  to  burn  their  way  through  the  trees, 
although  this,  of  course,  often  causes  trouble  to  the  corporation  as 
well  as  to  the  consumer.  In  case  of  injury  to  trees  the  warden  has 
access  to  the  courts,  but  most  companies  are  willing  to  put  up  with 
a  few  moderate  fines  for  the  sake  of  the  right  of  way  through  a 
tree  belt. 


-flj 


FIG.  313— METHODS  OF  FASTENING  WIRES  TO  TREES 
A,  Wire  attached  to  lag  bolt  and  protected  from  tree  by  blocks;  a,  cross  section. 
B,  Loose  wire  loop  fastened  with  clamp  and  separated  from  tree  by  blocks; 
b.  cross  section.  C,  Attachment  of  trolley  guy  wire.  D,  Wire  loop  tightly  placed 
around  trunk  will  produce  girdling.  E,  Blocks  used  in  A  and  B,  showing  groove 
»t  c. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


REJUVENATION  OF  NEGLECTED  TREES 

314.  Will  it  pay  to  renovate  neglected  trees? — To  an- 
swer this  question  satisfactorily  depends  on  the  answering 
of  many  other  questions  which  no  one  is  better  able  to 
answer  than  the  owner  of  the  trees.  Doubtless  many 

trees  that  it  would  not 
pay  financially  to  reno- 
vate might  be  saved 
without  difficulty,  as 
discussed  in  the  chap- 
ter on  tree  surgery 
(Chapter  XVIII), 
when  the  question  of 
cost  to  do  the  work 
and  cost  to  maintain 
the  tree  in  after  years 
are  set  aside.  As  a 
general  proposition, 
however,  it  will  not 
pay  to  renovate  neg- 
lected orchard  trees  for 
such  reasons  as  the 
following:  The  cost  of 
filling  cavities  and  the 
risk  of  breakage  after 
such  work  has  been 
done  are  too  great  to 
warrant  the  outlay  ; 
the  number  of  vacant 
spaces  in  a  neglected  orchard  due  to  the  loss  of  trees 
beyond  profitable  repair  may  be  so  large  that  the  amount 
of  time  required  to  cultivate  the  whole  area,  with  perhaps 

405 


FIG.    314— NEGLECTED     TREE     HARD     TO 

SPRAY   AND   HARVEST 

Trees  like  this  should  be  pruned  to  open  the 
head  and  remove  superfluous  branches. 


40c 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  CF  PRUNING 


50  per  cent  or  more  of  the  tree  positions  vacant,  would  be 
too  great  to  make  the  venture  profitable;  the  trees  may 
have  grown  so  tall  and  become  so  bare  below  from  close 
planting  and  improper  pruning  that  their  tops  cannot  be 
lowered  with  reasonable  assurance  of  success,  even  when 
the  removal  of  each  alternate  tree  would  leave  the 
balance  spaced  properly.  Such  points  as  these  can  be 
determined  only  after  examination  of  the  trees  and  the 
orchard  area  they  occupy.  To  fill  vacancies  with  young 

trees  is  by  no  means  a 
sane  practice  in  all  or 
even  in  many  cases; 
for  the  combination  of 
old  and  young  trees  in 
a  given  area  is  sure  to 
be  unsatisfactory — the 
old  trees  will  die  or 
will  have  to  be  cut  out 
at  irregular  intervals, 
and  if  their  places  are 
filled  by  new  trees  the 
management  of  the 
orchard  will  be  diffi- 
cult, to  say  the  least. 
Far  better  choose  a 
new  area,  as  a  rule,  and 
BEFORE  start  afresh  with  young 
trees. 

315.  Renovation  problems  other  than  pruning. — Besides 
the  mere  pruning  and  handling  of  the  trees  themselves, 
several  questions  must  be  considered  in  orchard  renova- 
tion. Among  them  are  the  general  thrift  and  health  of 
the  trees  as  affected  by  insects  and  diseases.  Examina- 
tion will  show  whether  trees  are  affected  by  borers,  San 
Jose  or  other  scales,  fire  blight  of  pear  and  quince,  black 


FIG.     315— OLD      PEACH     TREE 
REJUVENATION 


REJUVENATION  OF  NEGLECTED  TREES 


407 


FIG.    316— OLD    PEACH    AFTER    CUTTING 
BACK   SEVERELY 


knot  of  plum  and 
cherry,  yellows  or  ro- 
sette of  peach,  etc.  In 
some  cases  the  (whole 
tree  should  be  burned, 
in  others  only  the  af- 
fected branches ;  in  still 
others  spraying  will  be 
s  u  ffi  c  i  e  n  t.  How  to 
make  cuts,  what  wood 
to  leave  and  what  to 
remove,  how  to  recog- 

f?  nize  "blind"  wood  and 

V  "fruiting"    wood,    etc., 

are  points  already  dis- 
cussed in  previous 
chapters. 

316.  How  to  determine  the  health  of  the  trees.— Trees 
often  fail  to  thrive  even  when  no  disease  or  insect,  such  as 
those  just  mentioned,  have  played  havoc  with  them. 
Something  ails  them.  It  may  be  lack  of  moisture  in  the 
soil,  nearness  of  hard- 
pan  to  the  surface,  lack 
of  fertility  in  the  soil, 
"bark  binding"  of  the 
trunk  and  branches 
(114),  or  some  other 
cause  that  affects  the 
nutrition.  Careful  ex- 
amination should  dis- 
cover the  cause.  In 
most  cases  one  of  the 
surest  signs  that  the 
roots  are  in  good  con- 
dition, though  the  top 
is  in  trouble,  is  the 
abundance  of  suckers 


FIG.    317— OLD    PEACH    TREE    REJUVEN- 
ATED.      FIRST    SEASON'S    GROWTH 
AFTER   CUTTING 


408 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  IMU'XING 


around  the  base  of  the  trunk  and  water  sprouts  on  the 
main  branches  (Fig.  32). 

317.  Successful  cases. — While  it  is  a  fact  that  because 
of  such  reasons  as  those  given  above,  attempts  to  reno- 
vate or  rejuvenate  neglected  orchards  would  often  prove 
unremunerative,  especially  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperi- 
enced fruit  grower,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  in  the  older 
settled  parts  of  the  country,  where  orchards  were  planted 


FIG.   318— ORCHARD   BEFORE    RENEWAL  OR   RENOVATION 

by  a  former  generation  and  neglected  by  the  present  one, 
countless  orchards  which  for  years  had  not  merely  been 
practically  profitless  to  the  owners,  but  had  also  been  a 
menace  to  the  neighboring  plantations  because  they  were 
breeders  of  insects  and  diseases,  have  been  re-established 
on  a  profitable  basis  by  judicious  rejuvenation,  soil  fer- 


REJUVENATION  OF  NEGLECTED  TREES 


409 


tilizing  and  cultural  methods,  and  this  often  in  only  two 
or  three  years  of  vigilant  attention. 

The  most  notable  cases  of  such  work  that  have  come 
under  my  observation  are  the  half  dozen  or  more  run- 
down orchards  bought  up  or  rented  for  a  term  of  years 
by  Dr.  Frank  H.  Lattin  of  Albion  in  western  New  York. 
In  some  cases  the  areas  were  so  infested  with  under- 
growth that  the  neighbors  facetiously  suggested  that  Dr. 


FIG.  319— CAUGHT  RED  HANDED! 

Note  the  havoc  both  in  the  trees  and  on  the  ground.     But  see  Figs.  4  and  321   for 
final  judgment. 

Lattin  cut  the  trees  down  and  rely  for  his  profits  on  the 
raspberries  and  blackberries  growing  among  the  trees, 
the  tops  of  which  were  veritable  brush  piles.  But  so 
easily  and  inexpensively  was  the  work  of  reclamation 
performed,  so  profitable  did  the  orchards  become,  and  in 
so  short  a  time,  that  these  same  neighbors  said  it  made 
their  heads  swim!  It  must  be  remarked,  however,  that 


410 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 


in  these  orchards  the  trees  in  most  cases  had  merely  been 
neglected;  they  had  not  been  butchered  (Figs.  61,  201  to 
204)  so  that  their  trunks  and  main  branches  had  decayed 
heartwood.  No,  they  were  mostly  sound  to  the  center. 

318.  Renovated  orchards  quicker  to  respond  than 
young  trees.— When  conditions  such  as  these  exist,  it  is 
often  if  not  usually  possible  to  secure  profitable  returns 
in  a  shorter  time  (fewer  years)  than  when  a  new  orchard 
of  the  same  kinds  of  fruit  is  set.  Of  course,  the  younger 


FIG.  320— TREES  AFTER  CUTTING.     RUBBISH  HAULED  AWAY 

the  trees  and  the  better  they  have  been  trained  for  the 
first  few  years,  the  more  likely  is  success  to  be  achieved 
and  the  longer  are  they  likely  to  continue  profitable  under 
good  management.  With  apple,  pear  and  sweet  cherry 
trees  that  are  sound  it  is  often  well  worth  attempting  to 
rejuvenate  specimens  fifty  to  seventy-five  years  old,  or 
even  older  in  exceptional  cases ;  but  if  badly  made 
wounds  have  resulted  in  rotting  of  the  heart  wood,  trees 
may  be  worthless  for  rejuvenation  when  only  fifteen  or 


REJUVENATION  OF  NEGLECTED  TREES 


411 


twenty  years  old.  With  peaches,  apricots,  nectarines, 
plums  and  sour  cherries,  which  are  considered  short- 
lived trees  and  moreover  are  quick  maturing,  the  chances 
are  that  in  neglected  orchards  borers,  San  Jose  scale, 
black  knot  and  other  pests  may  have  weakened  the 
specimens  so  seriously  that  it  will  be  best  not  to  attempt 
rejuvenation,  but  to  destroy  the  trees  and  make  a  new 
plantation  on  land  as  far  as  conveniently  possible  from 
the  neglected  ones. 

319.  Vigor  of  tree  is  the  important  point  to  seek :.  age 


FIG.    321— FIRST    SEASON'S    GROWTH    AFTER    PRUNING.      MEN    THINNING 

FRUIT 
Note  new  growth   and  height  of  tree. 

is  merely  incidental.  Vigor  is  indicated  by  the  condition 
of  the  roots  and  the  branches  during  winter  and  the  color 
of  the  leaves  during  summer.  Unless  the  roots  are  good, 


412 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 


the  case  is  very  doubtful  of  success.  Don't  be  disturbed 
by  the  small  dead  branches  in  the  top.  They  have  died 
probably  for  lack  of  light  or  because  of  pest  injury.  Pay 
special  attention  to  the  suckers  and  the  water  sprouts 
(Fig.  32).  The  former  indicate  the  vigor  of  the  roots,  the 
latter  of  the  branches  and  the  trunk.  Judicious  spraying 
will  exterminate  most  of  the  insect  and  disease  enemies 
and  give  the  trees  a  clean  bill  of  health.  Carefully  save 
the  water  sprouts  until  after  all  dead  and  incurably 
diseased  wood  has  been  removed;  then  thin  them  out, 
exercising  care  to  leave  those  that  will  fill  in  the  blanks 
where  limbs  have  been  removed. 

In  every  orchard  each  tree  must  be  studied  as  an  indi- 
vidual problem.  Some  specimens  will  need  little  pruning, 

but  the  majority  will 
probably  need  a  great 
deal.  Just  how  much 
to  do  will  depend  upon 
the  amount  of  dead 
and  diseased  wood  in 
the  top,  whether  or  not 
the  top  must  be  low- 
ered, and  the  number, 
size  and  position  of  the 
water  sprouts.  Trees 
in  fairly  normal  condi- 
tion and  of  a  1  re  a  d  v 
convenient  height  will 
need  only  normal 
pruning;  those  with  abundant  dead  wood  and  excessive 
growths  may  have  to  be  heavily  pruned,  and  those  too 
high  for  effective  spraying,  economical  thinning  and 
harvesting  may  have  to  be  dehorned  (Fig.  320). 

When  a  high-topped  tree  with  no  water  sprouts  to  fall 
back  upon  must  have  its  head  lowered,  then  to  rely  on  a 
light  pruning  would  be  a  mistake,  because  it  would  not 
force  the  water  sprout  growths  desired.  A  severe 


FIG.  322— ISOLATED  APPLE  TREE  BEFORE 
PRUNING 


REJUVENATION  OF  NEGLECTED  TREES 


413 


pruning  of  the  top  is  indicated  in  such  cases,  the  idea 
being  to  force  the  development  of  such  adventitious 
growths.  The  needless  stubs  may  be  cut  off  two  or  three 
years  later.  It  is  not  wise  at  once  to  cut  off  the  limbs  at 
the  points  to  be  chosen  ultimately — "two  or  three  years 
later" — because  there  are  not  enough  water  sprouts  and 
small  branches  to  utilize  the  plant  food  forced  up  by  the 
roots. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  there  are  plenty  of  water 
sprouts  placed   well   down  on   the   trunk  and   the   main 


FIG.   323— ISOLATED   APPLE  TREE  AFTER  BEING   PRUNED 

branches,  the  tops  may  be  dehorned.  Here  again  good 
judgment  is  necessary.  So  many  trees  are  needlessly 
dehorned  that  it  seems  necessary  to  say  that  when  a  tree 
has  a  fairly  good  top  better  lower  it  a  little  at  a  time, 
taking  three  to  five  years  to  do  the  work,  by  cutting  out 
small  limbs  in  the  top  each  year.  Thus  the  trees  should 


414 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING 


not  be  thrown  out  of  balance,  and  they  should  not  only 
improve  steadily,  but  yield  more  or  less  fruit  during  the 
process  of  rejuvenation. 

320.  "Dehorning"  apple  trees  is  a  term  used  to  describe 
the  severe  reduction  of  the  tops  of  old  and  neglected  trees 
by  the  removal  of  large  limbs,  especially  in  the  upper 
parts  of  the  top  (Fig.  30).  To  a  greater  or  less  extent  the 
proposition  is  the  same,  though  less  frequently  practiced 
with  other  fruit  trees  (Fig.  31).  Jarvis  has  so  well 
handled  this  type  of  case*  that  his  remarks  are  quoted 
as  follows  : 


FIG.  324— SAME  TREE  AS   IN  FIG.  323  THE  SUMMER   AFTER  PRUNING 

"Most  trees  are  too  high  and  may  be  greatly  improved 
by  cutting  back  the  upper  branches.  A  tree  that  is  30 
feet  or  over  in  height  often  may  be  shortened  by  10  or  15 
feet,  and  one  between  25  and  30  feet  often  may  be  cut 
back  to  about  15  or  20  feet.  The  horizontal  branches,  as 


*  Connecticut    (Storrs)    Bulletin  No.  61. 


REJUVENATION  OF  NEGLECTED  TREES         415 

well  as  the  upright  ones,  may  be  cut  back  to  advantage, 
especially  with  trees  lacking  in  vitality,  and  also  those 
infested  with  scale.  In.  heading-back  the  upright 
branches,  the  cut  is  usually  made  just  above  a  side 
branch  that  points  outward.  This  tends  to  make  the 
tree  more  spreading  in  habit.  With  trees  that  are 
naturally  spreading,  and  where  a  more  upright  growth 
is  desired,  the  cutting  may  be  done  just  beyond  an  up- 
right side  branch.  If  this  method  is  followed  with  all 
horizontal  branches,  a  much  stronger  structure  will  be 
the  result.  The  severity  of  heading-in  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  vigor  of  the  tree.  Nothing  will  start  a  tree  into 
renewed  vigor  like  severe  pruning  during  the  dormant 
season.  The  cutting  back, therefore,  should  be  more  severe 
with  weakened  trees.  With  moderately  vigorous  trees, 
there  is  danger  of  producing  a  rank  growth  in  the 
form  of  watersprouts.  If  it  is  desirable  severely  to  head- 
back  such  trees,  it  is  better  to  do  it  gradually,  a  little  each 
year,  and  withhold  all  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  A  still 
better  plan  would  be  to  remove  about  half  of  the  required 
amount  of  brush  during  the  winter,  and  the  remainder 
during  the  growing  season.  (The  effect  of  summer  prun- 
ing upon  the  vigor  of  the  tree  is  just  the  opposite  of 
winter  pruning,  and  will  counteract  the  stimulating  effect 
of  the  latter.)  With  most  of  the  neglected  orchards, 
however,  the  vitality  is  so  low  that  most  of  the  pruning 
may  be  done,  without  fear  of  injury,  during  a  single 
dormant  season. 

"The  severity  of  cutting-back  will  also  depend  upon 
the  presence  of  scale.  The  work  of  spraying  is  greatly 
simplified  and  the  chances  for  success  in  controlling  the 
scales  are  greatly  enhanced  by  extreme  methods  of 
pruning. 

"After  the  trees  have  been  sufficiently  headed-in,  all 
dead  and  diseased  branches  should  be  removed,  and  also 
such  other  branches  as  are  necessary  to  produce  a  condi- 
tion favorable  to  the  free  circulation  of  air  and  the  admis- 


416  PRINCIPLES    AND   PRACTICE   OF    PRUNING 

sion  of  sunlight.  While  it  is  possible  to  overdo  the 
pruning  process,  especially  with  the  best  of  neglected 
orchards,  the  average  man  is  more  likely  to  err  in  the 
other  direction." 


INDEX 


Page 


Age  of  shoot 53 

Alderman,    quoted 102 

American   Gardening,   quoted.. 95,  381 

Anderson,   quoted 381 

Ann.  Ecole,  Nat.  Agr.,  quoted...  307 
Annual    bearing    by    pruning....    118 

Ann.  Sci.  Nat.  Bot.,  quoted 117 

Apple  experiments  in  Netherlands  170 

Apple    fruit    buds 57 

Apple  pruning 242 

Apple  pruning  experiments. . .  .89,  102 

Apples    annually    118 

Apples,   pruning  dwarf 369 

Apricot   fruit    buds 63 

Apricots,  pruning  mature 254 

Arbor  grape  training 329 

Arches  for  trees 379 

Australian  observations . 116 


B 


Bailey,  quoted  34 

Baldwin  bud  studies 72 

Baldwin  orchard  consecutive 

bearing  118 

Baldwin  pruning  experiments. .  .  .  109 

Bark-bound  trees  121 

Batchelor,  quoted  117 

Bearing  affected  by  pruning 5 

Bearing  habit  dictates  style  of 

pruning  241 

Bearing  vs  vigor 215 

Bedford,  Duke  of,  quoted 116 

Bellair,  quoted 381 

Blake,  quoted 224 

Bioletti,  quoted 296,  309,  331 

Blackberry  buds 76 

Blackberry  pruner 148 

Blackberry  pruning 282 

"Bleeding"  of  vines,  etc...  13,  14,  135 

Blight,  pear 248 

Bloom  buds,  ornamental 359 

Boddy,  quoted 165 

Bois,  quoted" 379 

Bolting  387 

Booth,  quoted 7 

Bramble  buds  76 

Bramble  pruning 279 

Branch  distribution  and  size 228 

Branch  length 282 

Bridge  grafting 144 

Bud,  fruit,  development 66 


Page 
Buds  affected  by  pruning-,  ringing, 

etc  no 

Buds  denned 52 

Buds,  pome  fruit 57 

Buds,  pruner  must  know  where 

borne  52 

Buds,  recognizing  fruit 64 

Buds,  resting 29 

Buds,  where  borne 52 

Bundles,  fibro-vascular 20 


California  bulletin,  quoted 

296,  309,  326,  331 
California  citrus   convention, 

quoted    238 

California  grape  training 331 

Callus     127 

Candelabrum    training 380 

Card,    quoted 179 

Castle's     experiments 92 

Cavities,    excavating 386 

Cavities,     open 394 

Cay  wood   grape  training 328 

Cell  functions    6 

Cells     6 

Cementing    cavities 391 

Cement   defects 394 

Chandler,    quoted 258 

Chautauqua  grape  training 325 

Cheal,    quoted 377 

Cherries,  pruning  mature 251 

Cherries,    recommendations    for. .  218 

Cherries   under   glass 381 

Cherry  fruit  buds    57,   64 

Cherry  tree,   history  of ."     37 

Chlorophyll     23 

Citrus  Convention,  quoted 237 

Citrus   pruning 235 

Cleveland  forester,  quoted 165 

Climate,   influence  on   pruning 83 

Collins,   quoted    384 

Colorado   bulletin,    quoted 176 

Columnar  trees   380 

Compt.   Rend.   Acad.    Sci.,    quoted 

107,  300 

Constructions     Ill 

Contracts,     surgery 401 

Cook,     quoted 160 

Corbett,  quoted    89 

Cordon,     horizontal 381 

Cordon,   horizontal  dwarf 380 

Cordons,  horizontal  grape 346 

Cordons,   vertical,  grape 346 


418 


INDEX 


Page 

Country   Gentlemen,  quoted 159 

Crab  tree,   history  of 43 

Cranefield,   quoted    280 

Cross-wise  grape  training 331 

Crotch   splitting  prevented 40 

Crotches,  avoiding  balanced 199 

Crozier,  quoted   6 

Cultura,     quoted 170 

Currant    buds 74 

Currant    pruning 287 

Custom   based   on   principle 212 


Defoliating    grapes 307 

Dehorning     trees 414 

Dewberry   buds 76 

Dickens,    quoted 116 

Diffusion   11 

Disbudding  grapes  306 

Double-headed   vines    345 

Drainage,  cavity 387 

Dressings,    wound    154 

Drinkard,    quoted 66,     106,110,116 

Drying,  effect  of 227 

Du    Breuil,    quoted 375 

Duke  of   Bedford,   quoted 116 

Dwarf  apple  pruning 369 

Dwarf    tree    pruning 364 


Electrical     injuries 402 

English   author,   quoted 377 

English   pruning   experiments 

89.  92.  116 

Espalier  fences 878,  880 

Evergreens,     pruning 362 


Fakers,  tree  surgery 397 

Fan  grape  training 826,  345 

Farmers'  Bulletin,  quoted 282 

Fences  for  trees 379 

Fleet,  quoted 287 

Forbes,  quoted  from  Gardeners' 

Chronicle  18 

French  investigator,  quoted 299 

French  writer,  quoted 875 

Frame  branches,  choosing: 195 

Fruit  bearing  vs  season  of 

pruning  118 

Fruitfulness  affected  by  growth..  66 
Fruitfulness  from  shortening 

twigs  115 

Fungi  in  grape  wounds 808 


Garden  and  Forest,  quoted 280 

Gardeners'  Chronicle,   quoted...  17,  18 

Georgia  Bulletin,  quoted 170 

Girdled   trees 17,  111,  188 


Page 

Gladwin,    quoted .   320 

Goff ,    quoted 80,   95 

Gooseberry     buds 74 

Gooseberry     pruning 289 

Gooseberry    tree,    big 293 

Goumy,     quoted 117 

Gourley,    quoted 72 

Grafting,  bridge 144 

Grafting  wax    143 

Grape    buds 76 

Grape,    leaf    area    of 26 

Grape  planting 336 

Grape    staking 338 

Grape,  time  to  prune 299 

Grapes     under     glass 352 

Grape  units 29(5 

Growth  relations  and  proof. . .  .26,  56 
Guying  396 

H 

Harper-Adams  college  experiments    92 

Hawaii  report,   quoted 260 

Head,    height   of 191,221 

Heading  back  effect  on  stockiness  103 

Heads,  low  183 

Head,   time  to  form 210 

Heads,    types   of 188 

Health,    determining   tree 407 

Hedges     355 

Hedrick,  quoted 107,  369 

Herbaceous  pruning  of  grape.  . .  .  305 
High  renewal  grape  training....  323 
Horizontal  cordon  grape  training  335 
Horticultural  Science  Society, 

quoted      102 

Howe,  quoted 107,   159 

Hudson  grape   training 327 

Huxley,   quoted 6 

I 

Ide,     quoted 170 

Injuries,     electrical 402 

Injuries,  kinds  of 138 

Irons,   climbing 400 

Italian   investigator,    quoted 308 


Journal  of  South  Australia, 

quoted     116 


Kains'    Propagation    book,    quoted 

7,  20,  143,  167,  274,  364 

Kansas    Bulletin,   quoted 116 

Keffer,  quoted 79,  265,  811 

Kentucky   Bulletin,    quoted 313 

Kniffin     modifications 320 

Kniffin    training 314 

Knives    148. 

Knots,   how  formed 125 

Keuka  grape  training 323 


INDEX 


419 


Page 


Label  wire  injuries 138 

Leader    headed    trees 190 

Leader    modified 190 

Leaf     formation 29 

Lemon    pruning 237 

"Le    Petit    Jardin" 379 

"Les  Arbrea  Fruitieres,"  quoted..  381 

Lewis,      quoted 186 

Life  in   girdled  trees 17 

Light,   relation  of  leaves  to j 

Limbs,   how  to   remove  large 137 

Limbs,    when    to    cut   big 134 

Linemen  damage  trees 87 

Locality,  influence  on  pruning 83 

London    Hort.    Soc.,    quoted 293 

Low   heads 183 

M 

Maryland,  quoted 106 

Massachusetts    Bulletin,    quoted 

106,  402 

Michigan     experiments,     quoted..  260 

Mills,    quoted 236 

Missouri   Bulletin,   quoted 258,  261 

Mules     peel     trees 18 

Multiple  cross-wire  grape  train- 
ing      329 

Munson    grape    training 318 

Muscadine  grape   "bleeding" : 

Muscadine  grape  training 330 

N 

Nailing    889 

Nebraska   Palletin,   quoted 157 

Newman    on   vine   "bleeding" 

New   Hampshire   Bulletin,    quoted     r> 

New  Jersey  Bulletin,  quoted 224 

New  York   Bulletin,  quoted 

107,  159,  320,  369 
Netherland    Pomological    Society, 

quoted     170 

Nursery  trees,  trunk  lengths  of . .  1' 

Nursery  trees,  when  to  prune 171 


Oaks,    peeled 17 

Ohio    Circular,   quoted. .  .158,  162,  165 

Orange  pruning   286 

Oregon    Bulletin,   quoted 186 

Ornamentals  bloom  season 359 

Ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  354,  357 

Osmosis    11 

Overhead    grape   training. ..  .328,    829 
Owners'    responsibility 400 


Paddock,   quoted    107,  I'l . 

Parrales    grape  training 329 

Peach   fruit  buds 57 

Peach  on  Marianna  stock 7 


Page 

Peach   pruning 256,258 

Peach  pruning  experiments 261 

Peach   rejuvenation 273 

Peaches,    recommendations    for. . .   220 
Pear  experiments  in  Netherlands     170 

Pear    fruit    buds 57 

Pear  orchard,   old    dwarf 366 

Pears,   pruning   mature 246 

Pears,  recommendations  for 215 

Pear  tree  barked    18 

Petri,   quoted 308 

Phloem    20 

Photosynthesis     25 

Pickering,  quoted    .  .89,  116 

Pit    fruit    buds 57 

Planting    methods 178 

Plant   Propagation   book,   quoted 

7,   20,   143,   167,  274,  364 

Plum  fruit  buds 57,  62  a 

Plums,     pruning     mature 252 

Plums,  recommendations  for 219 

Pole  pruners 148 

Pome   fruit   buds 57 

Poplar    shoots 30 

Poplars  peeled  by  mules 18 

"Practical  Fruit  Culture,"  quoted    377 

Pressure,    hydrostatic '. 

Pressure,  sap 13 

Protoplasm     6 

Prunes,   recommendations  for. . . .  219 

Pruning    aims 81,^ 

Pruning  a  life  saver -*  41 

Pruning,     defective 5 

Pruning    defined 1 

Pruning  effects 38 

Pruning    excessive 40 

Pruning  in  Bible  times 1 

Pruning,    injudicious,   destroys 

fruitfulness     56 

Pruning,    season    of 193 

Pruning,  summer  experiments 117 

Pruning  systems   and   ideals 3 

Pruning  vs  no  pruning  of  grapes    79 
Pyramids    379 


Quality  affected  by  pruning 5 

Quince 249 

Quince    buds 80 

Quir.ii.   quoted 116 


Raspberry    buds 76 

Raspberry,    pruning   black 281 

Raspberry,  pruning  red 279 

Ravaz,   quoted 801,  307 

Recherches  sur  les  bourgeons 117 

Rejuvenation,     old    orchard 405 

Rejuvenation    of    peach 273 

Renewal,    grape    training 323 

Renovation,    vine 348 

Repairing,   trees    worth 397 

Revue    de   viticulture,    quoted 299 


420 


INDEX 


Page 
Rhode  Island  report,  quoted..  175,  179 

Ringing    experiments 106 

Riviere,   quoted 307 

Root    hair    functions 8 

Root    losses    in    transplanting ....       9 

Root    pruning 91 

Roots,    extent    of 10 

Roots,     fibrous 

Roots,    tap 8 

Rotundif olia  grape   "bleeding" ...     14 


Sablon,    quoted 107 

Saws     150 

Scars,   meaning   of,  on   spurs ....     54 

Selby,     quoted 158 

Shade    trees 354 

Shears    149 

Shoot,  age  of 53 

Simpson   quoted    from   Gardeners' 

Chronicle     17 

Soc.   Nat.    Hort.    (France)    quoted  307 
South    Carolina    Bulletin,     quoted     14 

Spacing    frame    limbs 195 

Spacing     plants 33 

Spindle-formed     trees 380 

Sprouts  on  felled  trees 19 

Spur   grape    training..,. 3! 

Spur   renewal  grape  training.  . . .  324 

Spurs,     fruit 54 

Staking   grapes 338 

Starns,    quoted 170 

Staz.    Sper.    Agr.   Ital.,  quoted...  308 

Stem     extension 29 

Stomata     15 

Stone    fruit  buds 59 

Stone,    quoted 402 

Stringfellow   pruning H 

Stripping    experiments 106 

Stub    pruning 174 

Stub-root   pruning 1( 

Suckering     grapes 807 

Summer  pruning 337,  338,  348 

Summer  pruning  experiments 117 

Summer  pruning  non-bearing 

trees    202 

Summer  pruning   of   grape 81 

Surgery,    when    to    do 394 


Taille  Hative   au  Taille  Tardive, 

quoted    301     302 

Telephone    linemen 87 

Tennessee  Bulletin,  quoted 

79,   265     311 
Texas  Farm  and  Ranch,  quoted.     170 

Thinning  by  pruning 1 

Thinning    grape    shoots 306 

Timber  improved  by  peeling  bark     17 

Tools,    pruning 146,   809 

Tomato    pruning 89 


Page 

Topping    grape  shoots 306 

Top-worked     trees   274 

Transpiration   of  water 14,   15 

Transplanting,  pruning  at 173 

Transportation    of    water 16 

Tree     surgery 384 

Trellis,    grape 309 

Types    of    heads 188 

u 

Umbrella    grape   training 331 

Undercutting     387 

Unilateral  grape  training 335 

Units,  of  grape  pruning 296 

Utah    Bulletin,   quoted 117 


Vase-formed  trees 188,  380 

Vase-formed  vines 345 

Venation,     leaf 22 

Vidal,     quoted 299 

Vigor,  determining  tree 411 

Vine  pruning,   California 350 

Vine   renovation 348 

Vine  supports   310 

Virginia  Bulletin,  quoted.. 66,  106,  116 

w 

Walnuts,    recommendations    for. .  220 

Washington  Bulletin,  quoted 85 

Water,    absorption    of    8 

"Water     branches" 19 

Water,  functions   of 7 

Water-sprouting  grapes 307 

Waugh,    quoted 258,  259 

Wax,  grafting  143 

Wells,  J.   Q.,  orchard  record 118 

West  Virginia  Bulletin,   quoted 

89,  102 

Whip     pruning.  .' 174 

Whitten,   quoted    '.  .  170,  261 

Winter  pruning  grapes  337,  341,  343 

Wire   label  injuries 138 

Wisconsin  Bulletin,  quoted 80,  280 

Woburn    experiments 89,  116 

Wound    dressings 154 

Wound  healing  experiments 1! 

Wounds,  kinds  contrasted 125 

Wounds   on   grapes 308 

Wounds,    rational 128 

Wounds,  where  to  make  large. . . .  133 


Xylem     20 


Year   Book,   quoted 884 

Yeomans's  pear  orchard 366 

Y-crotches,    danger    from 140 


3  1175  00140  9435 


4 


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